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Human Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Where is most of the total body water, and what percent resides there?

A

67%, intracellular or within the cytoplasm

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2
Q

Where is the majority of the extracellular body water?

A

Tissue fluid, or interstitial fluid (80%)

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3
Q

Where is 20% of the extracellular body water contained?

A

blood plasma

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4
Q

What is excess fluid in the part of the body that contains 80% of the extracellular body water called?

A

edema

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5
Q

What mediates exchange of molecules between blood and cells?

A

the interstitial fluid

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6
Q

What is the extracellular matrix composed of?

A

elastin and collagen, ground substance

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7
Q

What is the gel-like material of the ECM composed of?

A

glycoproteins, and proteoglycans (or mucopolysaccharides)

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8
Q

What provides the structural strengths to connective tissues?

A

collagen and elastin (iron bars)

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9
Q

What is one type of protein that contribues the the basal lamina of epithelial membranes?

A

Collagen IV

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10
Q

How does the basal lamina wed the epithelium to underlying connective tissues?

A

Forms chemical bonds between carbohydrates from the outside of the PM of epithelial cells and the glycoproteins/proteoglycans of the ECM in connective tissues

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11
Q

What is the glue between cells and the ECM and how does it work?

A

integrins (glycoprotein), extends form cytoskeleton through the PM and into the ECM

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12
Q

What 2 diseases are exacerbated by an enzyme that requires zinc ion cofactor and what is the protein called?

A

Cancer and arthritis, matrix metaloproteinases (MMP)

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13
Q

What types of molecules pass easily through a phospholipid bilayer?

A

nonpolar

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14
Q

What is the difference between channels and carriers?

A

Channels open or close, carriers change configuration

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15
Q

What are 2 types of carrier mediated transport?

A

Facilitated diffusion, active transport

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16
Q

What are 3 types of non carrier mediated transport and what do they pass through?

A

Simple diffusion- lipid soluble
Simple diffusion of ios- membrane channels
Simple diffusion of water- aquaporin channels

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17
Q

What kind of processes are included in passive transport?

A

All non carrier mediated transport and facilitated diffusion

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18
Q

What kind of transport uses pumps and which direction does it move on the concentration gradient?

A

active transport, against

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19
Q

What powers active transport?

A

ATP

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20
Q

What is the driving force of diffusion?

A

Brownian motion

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21
Q

What is the difference between diffusion and net diffusion?

A

Net diffusion involves the net movement until the concentration difference no longer exists, diffusion is just mostion

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22
Q

How are microwaves related to diffusion?

A

They speed up the molecular motion of water to generate heat

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23
Q

Why can O2 molecules or steroid molecules pass easily through a phospholipid bilayer?

A

They are non polar/ lipid soluble

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24
Q

Plasma membranes regulate the movement of what part(s) of a solution?

A

solutes and solvents

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25
Q

How does the oxygen concentration compare inside and outside of the cell and how does this concentration effect its movement?

A

Low inside, high outside, wants to move inside

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26
Q

How does gas exchange occur?

A

diffusion between cells and their extracellular environment

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27
Q

T/F water can diffuse without aquaporins? Why/why not?

A

True because they are small and lack a net charge, but it is limited

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28
Q

Osmosis is the simple diffusion of what?

A

a solvent (water)

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29
Q

What kind of molecules require carrier proteins for transport?

A

Large, polar (like glucose)

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30
Q

T/F: carrier proteins always require energy?

A

False

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31
Q

What are two kinds of specific channels that open/close in response to changes in membrane voltage?

A

NA+ and K+

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32
Q

What two types of body cells are excitable?

A

Muscle and nerves

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33
Q

What procedure channels blood through an external filter to separate wastes?

A

hemodialysis

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34
Q

What serves as the semipermeable membrane in peritoneal dialysis?

A

your own peritoneal membrane

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35
Q

What glycoprotein is abnormal in cystic fibrosis?

A

cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)

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36
Q

Where are epithelial membranes found?

A

sweat glands, pancreatic ducts, small respiratory airways

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37
Q

What 4 things influence the rate of diffusion?

A

MAGNITUDE of concentration difference, permeability of the membrane, temperature of the solution, surface area of the membrane

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38
Q

What serves as the driving force for diffusion?

A

random motion of water, the magnitude of concentration difference

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39
Q

In a resting neuron, the PM is more permeable to K+ or Na+? Which diffuses quicker?

A

K+

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40
Q

A crushing impact to the skull could release a fatal amount of what into the body?

A

potassium

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41
Q

Why does increased temperature speed up diffusion?

A

because it proportionally increases the random movement of water, which increases the movement of solute molecules

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42
Q

How is the surface area of membranes increased?

A

numerous folds

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43
Q

What aids the rapid passage of digestion products across the epithelial membranes in the small intestine?

A

microvilli, tiny finger like projections

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44
Q

What are the requirements of osmosis

A

requires water and a selectively permeable membrane

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45
Q

When are solutes considered osmotically active?

A

When they cannot freely pass through the membrane

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46
Q

What is the pressure needed to just stop osmosis?

A

osmotic pressure

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47
Q

Why do animal cells lyse in pure water?

A

they lack cell walls

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48
Q

What is the osmotic pressure of pure water?

A

zero

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49
Q

Why is water drawn in from interstitial fluid to capillary blood?

A

because concentration of plasma proteins is higher in capillaries and capillary blood is osmotically active

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50
Q

What can a low concentration of plasma proteins lead to?

A

edema

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51
Q

Why does a damaged liver lead to edema?

A

it is unable to produce albumin, which is a major plasma protein, thus there is a low concentration of protein in blood and water accumulates in the interstitial fluid

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52
Q

What is osmotic pressure generated by?

A

the solute

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53
Q

What are 3 common signs of diabetes?

A

hyperglycemia, polyuria, excessive thirst

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54
Q

What is avogadro’s number?

A

the number of molecules in a mole 6.02X10^23

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55
Q

What is one molar solution?

A

1 mole of solute dissolved in water to make 1 liter of solution

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56
Q

Why is more water needed to make 1.0M of NaCL than 1.0M glucose?

A

because a mole of NACl is 58.5 grams and a mole of glucose is 180grams, which takes up more volume

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57
Q

Why is molality better used to measure osmosis?

A

because the ratio of solute to water molecules is important

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58
Q

What is osmotic pressure dependent on?

A

the ratio of solute to solvent

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59
Q

What is the expression for the total molality of a solution?

A

osmolality (Osm)

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60
Q

What is the osmolality of 1.0 m of NaCl?

A

2 Osm

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61
Q

What method is used to determine osmolality?

A

freezing point depression

62
Q

What is the freezing point of a solution based on?

A

the total concentration of solution

63
Q

Why does adding salt to ice melt it?

A

because it changes the concentration of the solute and thus, the freezing point

64
Q

What is the osmolality of human plasma?

A

300 mOsm

65
Q

What does 5% detrose indicate?

A

5 grams of glucose per 100ml

66
Q

How many grams of glucose are in an isosmotic solution of 1 L of water?

A

50 grams

67
Q

How many grams of NaCl per 100ml are in an isosmotic solution to human plasma?

A

.85grams

68
Q

if a isosmotic gluce or saline solution was separated from plasma by a membrane that is permeable to water but not to glucose or NaCl, will osmosis occur? What is this solution called?

A

No, isotonic

69
Q

What cells are shaped like biconcave discs? Why?

A

RBCs, lose their nucleus

70
Q

Why is saline better to clean wounds than tap water?

A

It is isotonic

71
Q

Why does hemolysis occur when RBCs are placed in water?

A

hypotonic solution

72
Q

What does tonicity refer to?

A

the effect of solution on the the osmotic movement of water

73
Q

What happens when RBCs are placed in seawater?

A

crenation

74
Q

When would you use mannitol intravenously?

A

cerebral edema

75
Q

What intravenous solution contains ions that resemble electrolytes in plasma?

A

Ringer’s lactate

76
Q

Where are osmoreceptors generally located?

A

the hypothalamus

77
Q

What happens during dehydration?

A

water leaves osmoreceptors because of increased osmolality of extracellular fluid, osmoreceptors shrink, which mechanically stimulates increased production of nerve impulses, person increasees water intake and excretes less urine

78
Q

What happens when a person is dehydrated and the body excretes less urine?

A

osmoreceptors in hypothalamus stimulate the posterior pituitary which releases ADH (vasopressin)–> acts on the kidneys to promote water retention

79
Q

Where is ADH manfactured

A

hypothalamus

80
Q

How does eating a lot of salt affect the blood?

A

increases blood volume and blood pressure

81
Q

Why does the blood volume increase when eating salty food?

A

because ADH is released and so they excrete less urine and also drink more until the salt is diluted, which increases blood volume/pressure

82
Q

Hyponatremia leads to what?

A

More water excretion, low blood volume and blood pressure, can be fatal

83
Q

Why are genes considered by some to be “selfish”?

A

because it is thought that an organism exists so that genes can survive beyond mortal life

84
Q

What is the purpose of genetic diversity?

A

it ensures some members of the population with survive environmental changes

85
Q

What is reduction division?

A

meiosis

86
Q

How many chromosomes does each gamete have?

A

23

87
Q

What is the fusion of a sperm and ovum?

A

fertilization

88
Q

How many chromosomes are in a fused sperm and egg?

A

46

89
Q

How does a zygote grow into an adult?

A

mitosis

90
Q

T/F: a zygote has 46 different chromosomes

A

False, 23 homologous pairs

91
Q

What are the first 22 pairs of chromosomes called

A

autosomal chromosomes

92
Q

How many alleles of each gene are on autosomal chromosomes? How many alleles are usually expressed?

A

2 sets, both

93
Q

How is an allele silenced?

A

epignetic changes to the chromatin, methylation of cytosine bases in DNA and acetylation of histone proteins in chromatin

94
Q

What is the term that describes epigenetic changes in the zygote that silences an allele from one parent and expressing the nonimprinted allele of another parent in the offspring?

A

genomic imprinting

95
Q

what recombines with the y chromosome during meiosis?

A

the tip of the x chromosome

96
Q

what is a region of DNA bases that can be read from either direction?

A

palindrome

97
Q

Where are testis specific genes located??

A

y chromosomes

98
Q

Why can testis specific genes correct defects within themselves?

A

gene conversions, they are located in palindromes

99
Q

Why is sex determination completely random 50/50 chance?

A

because half the sperm cells produced will contain an x and half will contain a y

100
Q

Each diploid cell in a woman inherits ___ x chromosomes and ____ is activated

A

2, 1

101
Q

how are x chromosome inactivation and genomic imprinting related?

A

They both result in expression of only one allele of a pair

102
Q

What determines the sex of a child?

A

the sperm

103
Q

If you saw a Barr body in a cheek cell, what would you know?

A

the cell came from a woman

104
Q

What is the clump of heterochromatin seen in cheek cells formed from?

A

the inactive x chromosome

105
Q

If you saw a drumstick appendage in a nucleus, what kind of cell would it be and what gender would the owner of the cell be?

A

neutrophil, female

106
Q

If you took a ultrasound 4 weeks into a pregnancy, could you determine the gender of the fetus?

A

no, females and males look the same for about 40 days into development

107
Q

What cells produce sperm? ova?

A

spermatogonia, oogonia

108
Q

What is the default setting of an embryo?

A

female

109
Q

What substance is necessary for testes to form?

A

testis determining factor (TDF)

110
Q

Where is the gene for TDF located?

A

the short arm of Y chromosome

111
Q

What characteristics are shared by enzymes and proteins?

A

specificity, competition, saturation

112
Q

What happens to the rate of transport when 2 molecules are competing for the same carrier?

A

it is lower

113
Q

What measurement indicates saturation?

A

transport maximum (Tm)

114
Q

What disease results from inadequate secretion of inaction of insulin?

A

diabetes mellitus

115
Q

What element of proteins and enzymes accounts for glycosuria?

A

saturation (of carriers)

116
Q

How is glucose transported from blood across plasma membranes?

A

facilitated diffusion

117
Q

What are two words that describe carrier proteins that do the same job?

A

isoforms, isomeres, isoenzymes

118
Q

Where does GLUT 4 exist and what regulates its existence?

A

muscles and adipose tissue, insulin and exercise

119
Q

What common cellular process is similar to the way GLUT 4 fuses with the PM?

A

exocytosis

120
Q

T/F: glucose is always transported down its concentration gradient. Why/why not?

A

False, in certain places (epithelial cells of tubules and small intestine) it is transported against and uses a different carrier that simiultaneously transports Na+

121
Q

T/F: fatty acids are transported across the PM by simple diffusion. Why/why not?

A

false, fatty acid transport carriers facilitate diffusion out of adipocytes and into blood/organs

122
Q

What can occur if one overdoses on insulin?

A

hypoglycemia: LOC or death

123
Q

What happens when a cell is poisoned with ATP?

A

inhibits oxidative phosphorylation (no atp)

124
Q

What are 3 ATPase enzymes?

A

Ca2+, H+, Na+/K+

125
Q

The Ca2+ pump removes Ca2+ from the ______ and pumps it into the _________

A

cytoplasm, endoplamic reticulum

126
Q

What happens when ion channels are opened for Ca2+?

A

it diffuses rapidly into the cytoplasm

127
Q

What does the sudden rise of cytoplasmic ca2+ do?

A

signals a diverse amount of processes, like releasing neurotransmitters

128
Q

What does much of the body’s energy go to?

A

maintaing Ca2+ pumps

129
Q

What goes out and what comes in the sodium potassium pump?

A

3 Na+ out 2 K+ in

130
Q

Where is Na+ more highly concentrated?

A

The extracellular fluid

131
Q

What provides the electrochemical impulses needed for nerve and muscle cells?

A

Na+/K+ pump

132
Q

Why is extrusion of sodium important for osmotic reason?

A

if Na+ concentration is increased in cytoplasm, it promotes osmotic inflow of water which damages cells

133
Q

What molecules is important for coupled transport?

A

Na+

134
Q

What condition correlates with a large U wave?

A

hypokalemia

135
Q

what disease is associated with muscle weakness and low potassium?

A

hypokalemic periodic paralysis

136
Q

What channel is affected in hypokalemic periodic paralysis?

A

voltage gated calcium channels (R1RY type)

137
Q

Why is calcium conductance important?

A

need to reach threshold so muscles can contract

138
Q

Why is hypokalemic periodic paralysis often misdiagnosed and what is it diagnosed as?

A

conversion or hysterical paralysis disorder, because it doesn’t correspond with any nerve or spinal root distributions and is exacerbated when epinephrine is released in fight or flight situations

139
Q

What is the most important energy source for the brain?

A

glucose

140
Q

In secondary active transport, the ____ movement of a molecule or ion is obtained from the _____ movement of transport of ____ into the cell

A

uphill, downhill, Na+

141
Q

If a molecule/ion is moved in the same direction as Na+ the it is _____ or ______

A

cotransport, symport

142
Q

If the molecule moves in the opposite direction as Na+ then the process is called _______ or ________

A

countertransport or antiport

143
Q

Where is ATP used in the Na+Ca2+ exchanger?

A

maintaining the steep concentration gradient of Na+

144
Q

The Na+Ca2+ exchanger is an example of what kind of transport?

A

countertransport

145
Q

What drug induces stronger contraction of the heart in CHF and how does it happen?

A

digitalis, inactivates the Na+/K+ pump which reduces activity of Na+Ca2+ exchanger (increased intracellular sodium reverses the exchanger so more Na+ leaves the cell and more Ca2+ enters, strengthening contractions)

146
Q

Would poisoning a cell influence secondary active transport?

A

Yes

147
Q

The concentration gradient for Na+ means that intracellular Na+ is ______

A

high

148
Q

What process removes molucules taht are too large to be transported by carriers? Ex of molecules

A

exocytosis, hormones or neurotransmitters

149
Q

How is cholesterol removed from the blood by the liver and the walls of blood vessels? What common condition is this related

A

receptor mediated endocytosis, artherosclerosis

150
Q

What are the 2 forms of bulk transport?

A

exocytosis and endocytosis

Human Physiology (17 decks)

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