Ethics - finalss Flashcards
– is a standard of measurement
norm
– are the criteria of judgment about the sorts of persons we ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought to perform
norms of morality
the criteria for judging the quality of character, what sort a person one ought
Moral norms
. It is the ultimate and absolute norm of morality; independent of any standard.
1. Eternal Divine Law (objective)
It is related to the person’s conscience
2. Human Reason(subjective)
a norm which governs nature and actions of things
Law
– Principles that governs the natural phenomena of the world
Law of Nature
– Refers to the free acts of rational beings
Natural Law
– is the plan of God in creating all creatures, both animate and inanimate, giving to each of them its respective nature.
Eternal Law
- the exemplar of divine wisdom and reason of God directing all actions and movements
Eternal Law
– refers to the operational tendencies of the human nature - the chemical, biological, physiological, psychological, and rational properties of man as an organism.
Natural law
- tendency of human nature towards growth and self-fulfillment.
Natural Law
– relate to formation of character, what kind of person we ought to be.
Formal norms
– relate to actions, what actions we ought to do.
Material norms
is derived from the natural law and promulgated for the common good by a human agency
Human positive law
- ‘cum’ (together) and ‘Scientia’ (to know)
Conscience
- Aka ‘the voice of god’ – a whisper of admonition
Conscience
- Second norm of morality
- the choice of a particular good in a given situation
Conscience
derives from our understanding of what we ought to be done and avoided.
judgement of reason
It judges the good as good and evil as evil
Correct/True Conscience
. It mistakes the good as bad and what is bad is good
Erroneous of False conscience
– Kind of judgment where the error could not have been avoided.
a. Invincibly erroneous conscience
– Kind of judgment where the error could have been avoided if the person exerted diligence on his part .
b. Vincibly erroneous conscience
– When faced with two alternative options, fears that’s in is presenting both choices
c. Perplexed conscience
– Imagines grave sins as small ones and magnifies little offenses as serious
d. Pharisaical conscience
– Is sure whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral
3. Certain Conscience
– is unsure whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral.
4. Doubtful Conscience
– is very cautious or extremely fearful to the extent that the person refuses to act.
5. Scrupulous Conscience
– Takes what is wrong or sinful very lightly, even considering it as something good and okay
6. Lax Conscience
– it is possible for a person to do good without having a good character.
Moral Pretension
– is defined as a basic structure underlying a system or a concept.
- Set of assumptions, values, and practice
Framework
- is the branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality.
- explains what goodness and wickedness mean and how we know about them
Meta-ethics
– states that moral judgments convey propositions, that is, they are ‘truth bearers’ or they are either true or false; right and wrong are matters of fact.
COGNITIVISM
– claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or falsity) of moral judgments are independent of people’s thoughts and perceptions.
Moral realism
holds that the truth (or falsity) of ethical propositions are dependent on the attitudes or standards of a person or group of persons. Subjectivism is obviously contrary to moral realism.
Ethical subjectivism
– denies that moral judgments are either true or false. It claims that ethical sentences do not convey authentic propositions, hence are neither true nor false.
NON-COGNITIVISM
– is the most popular form of non-cognitivist theory. It submits that moral judgments are mere expressions of our emotions and feelings.
Emotivism
theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all places.
MORAL UNIVERSALISM
- Aka “moral objectivism”
- Believing that some behaviors are simply wrong, it also submits that if something is right for one, then it is right for another.
- very much compatible with ‘moral realism’.
MORAL UNIVERSALISM
– submits that different moral facts and principles apply to different persons or group of individuals.
MORAL RELATIVISM
- Believing that various cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong, it also maintains that ethical standards also change over time even in the same culture.
- very much compatible with ‘ethical subjectivism’
MORAL RELATIVISM
is a meta-ethical stance which states that moral facts are known through observation and experience
MORAL EMPIRICISM
contends that moral facts and principles are knowable a priori (using logic and reason to form conclusion before experience)
MORAL RATIONALISM
submits that moral truths are knowable by intuition that is by immediate instinctive knowledge without reference to any evidence.
MORAL INTUITIONISM
- Semantic Classification == Cognitivism vs non-cognitivism
Cognitivism is the view that moral judgments are statements that can be true or false. This means they express beliefs about moral facts.
- Moral Realism: This is the belief that moral facts exist independently of human opinion.
- Ethical Subjectivism: This view holds that moral truths are relative to individual or cultural beliefs.
Non-Cognitivism argues that moral judgments don’t express beliefs about facts, but rather emotions or attitudes.
- Emotivism: This is the idea that moral judgments are simply expressions of our feelings. For example, saying “Murder is wrong” is more like saying “Boo! Murder!” It’s expressing a negative emotion, not stating a fact.
- Substantial Classification == Moral universalism vs. moral relativism
Moral Universalism is the belief that moral principles are universal and apply to everyone, regardless of culture or personal beliefs. For example, murder is wrong, no matter where you are or who you are.
Moral Relativism is the idea that moral truths are not absolute but vary between different cultures and individuals. What is considered morally right or wrong can differ from one society to another.
- Epistemological Classification == Empiricism vs. Rationalism vs. Intuitionism
- Moral Empiricism: This view suggests that we learn about morality through our experiences and observations of the world.
- Moral Rationalism: This view argues that we can understand morality through reason and logic, without relying on experience.
- Moral Intuitionism: This view proposes that we have a direct, intuitive understanding of moral truths, without needing to rely on reasoning or experience.
- the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally speaking.
- evaluates standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions and determines a moral course of action
Normative Ethics
ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties.
- is guided by a individuals own personal sense of morality. It is concerned with what people do not with the consequences of their actions.
Deontology
- Came from Greek word ‘deon’, == duty
- Aka nonconsequentialism
- the system’s principles are submitted as obligatory, regardless of the consequences that actions might produce
Deontology
- refers to moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or results.
- Its most famous form is consequentialism which proposes that morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the action’s consequences.
Teleology
- Came from Greek word ‘telos’ == end
- the end result of the action as the exclusive consideration of its morality.
- deems an action as morally right if its favourable consequences are greater than its adverse outcomes.
Teleology
- places emphasis on developing good habits of character, like kindness and generosity, and avoiding bad character traits, or vices, such as greed or hatred.
- emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences.
Virtue Ethics
- philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues.
- Attempt to determine the ethically correct course of action in specific realms of human action.
Applied Ethics
- highest good (summum bonum)
- one that habitually will wills rightly
- the ability to act morally, regardless of personal desires or inclinations. This means acting out of duty, not out of self-interest or the pursuit of happiness.
Good will
refers to the feeling that pushes us to select a particular option or make a particular decision. It is our liking or tendency to do, favor, or want something.
Inclination
is that which we ought to do despite our inclination or taste to do otherwise.
duty or obligation
should act on principles or maxims, rather than on impulse.
- instead of helping someone solely because we like them, a moral action would be to help anyone in need, regardless of personal feelings. This is because we recognize a duty to help those in need, and we act on This principle
Categorical Imperatives
– is a general rule or principle which serves as a guide to action
Maxim
– These are absolute moral commands that must be followed regardless of personal desires or goals.
- They are unconditional and apply to everyone, such as “Do not lie” or “Treat others as you would like to be treated.”
Categorical Imperatives
– These are conditional moral commands that depend on specific goals or desires.
- They are of the form “If you want X, then do Y.” For example, “If you want to be healthy, then eat your vegetables.”
Hypothetical Imperatives
is that a lot of our moral experience and practice takes the form of following rules.
Strength
– are concerned with what people do, not the consequences of their action.
Duty-Based Ethics
- is a moral philosophy that emphasizes the importance of respecting individual rights.
- He argued that governments are entrusted by citizens to create and enforce laws in exchange for protection. However, governments must not abuse this power by infringing on the rights of citizens.
- The intentions behind our actions are just as important as the outcomes
Right Theory
- These are rights recognized and protected by law. They are codified in legal documents and enforced by legal institutions.
- can change over time and vary across different jurisdictions - For example, the right to vote or the right to own property are legal rights.
Legal Rights
- These are rights that are considered to be inherent to human beings, regardless of legal recognition. They are based on ethical principles and often arise from philosophical or religious beliefs.
- are often seen as universal and unchanging
- For example, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are often considered moral rights.
Moral Rights
– refers to moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or results
- deems an action as morally right if its favourable consequences are greater than its adverse outcomes
Teleology
– proposes that actions, rules, or policies should be ethically measured and evaluated by their consequences, not by intention of motives of the agent.
Consequentialist ethics
– Is a teleological ethical system judges the rightness of an act in terms of an external goal or purpose. It is the most influential consequentialist theory.
Utilitarianism
- It comes from the Latin term “utilis” which means “useful“.
- It states that what is useful is good, and that the moral value of actions are determined by the utility of its consequences.
Utilitarianism
– argues that the right course of action is one that maximizes overall happiness. It is basically hedonistic as it identifies happiness with pleasure.
Utilitarian ethics
- you should choose the action that will lead to the greatest overall happiness or the least amount of suffering, in that specific situation. It’s about focusing on the immediate consequences of your actions. (what to do)
- Act: I think it’s okay if it causes more happiness or prevents pain in some way
Act Utilitarianism
- you should follow rules that, if generally followed, would lead to the greatest overall happiness or the least amount of suffering. It’s about following rules that have been proven to work well in the long run (how to do).
- Rule: I think we should make rules that from our experience show increase happiness, and follow those rules
Rule Utilitarianism
First point: higher vs. lower pleasures
Higher Pleasures – means intellectual and includes artistic, political and even spiritual pleasures (something that differs humans from animals)
Lower pleasures – are those which animals, too, can experience, such as those from food, drink and sex. (Physical Pleasures)
- appears to be a direct negative reaction against Kantian ethics. Kant focuses on motive while Bentham and Mill focuses on consequences.
- also allows for exceptions to the rule if justified by the consequences. Take the case of lying to protect another from sure danger. For Kant this wrong while for Utilitarianism it is right.
Utilitarianism
– it proves an action to be right or wrong by pointing to the observable evidences
Cause and effect reasoning
– it promotes actions that empirically improve life.
Perceptible effect
– choosing action produces more good than bad consequences.
Act Utilitarianism
– determined by the amount of good it brings about when followed.
Rule Utilitarianism
– It comprises two main principles of liberty and equality; the second is subdivided into Fair Equality of Opportunity and the Difference Principle.
Justice
- prioritizing in the order of the Liberty Principle, Fair Equality of Opportunity and the Difference Principle
- the “least advantaged” are benefitted and not hurt or forgotten.
lexical priority
This principle states that everyone should have a Fair chance to succeed in life, regardless of their social class, race, or other factors. It means that jobs, education, and other opportunities should be open to everyone based on merit, not on privilege.
Fair Equality of Opportunity
- This principle allows for inequality, but only if it benefits the least advantaged members of society. For example, if a society allows for high incomes for doctors, it’s only fair if this leads to better healthcare for everyone, especially the poorest.
Difference Principle
Original Position
Imagine you’re choosing the rules for a new society, but you don’t know who you’ll be in that society. You could be rich or poor, smart or not so smart, healthy or sick. This is Rawls’s “original position.”
Because you don’t know your future role, you’ll choose fair rules that benefit everyone, especially the least fortunate. This is how Rawls believes we can arrive at just principles of society.
- A moral philosophy that emphasizes developing virtuous character traits (e.g., kindness, generosity) and avoiding vices (e.g., greed, hatred) as the foundation for ethical behavior.
Virtue Ethics
- It focuses on cultivating good habits and becoming a virtuous person rather than solely adhering to rules or pursuing specific outcomes.
Virtue Ethics
- They emphasized the importance of reason, knowledge, and the pursuit of virtue as the foundation of a moral life. They believed that true happiness is found not in fleeting pleasures, but in living a life of wisdom and ethical integrity.
Socrates & Plato’s Moral Philosophy
– pleasure and pain fail to provide an objective standard moral
Gorgias
– is it good because gods love it or the the gods love it because it is good
Euthypro
– the objectively existing immaterial entities that are the proper object of knowledge
- circleness and squaredness
Theory of Forms
Aristotle’s Ethics
- Three general descriptions, which are interrelated, can be used to depict aristotle’s ethics.
- Self Realizationism
- Eudaimonistic
- Aretaic
- Act Oriented Ethics
- Virtue Ethics
– end or purpose
Telos
ultimate human goal is “” – happiness and human flourishing.
eudaimonia
greatest good
Summum Bonum
Thomas Aquinas’ Laws
- Ethernal law – ration plan of god by which all creation is ordered
- Human Law - The aspect of the Eternal law which is accessible to human reason
- Natural Law - Refers to positive laws, more exact and forceful provisions.
- Divine Law - Serves to complement the other types of law.
- Natural inclinations - (1) To survive (2) To reproduce and educate offspring (3) To love
– ration plan of god by which all creation is ordered
1. Ethernal law
the aspect of The Eternal law which is accessible to human reason
2. Human Law
Refers to positive laws, more exact and forceful provisions.
3. Natural Law
Serves to complement The other types of law.
4. Divine Law
- (1) To survive (2) To reproduce and educate offspring (3) To love
5. Natural inclinations
3 aspects of Aquinas Lawa
- Species - What kind of an action it is. There ar 3 types. Good, Bad and Indifferent Neutral.
- Accidents - Simply refers to the circumstances surrounding the action.
- End - Stands for the agents intention.
- What kind of an action it is. There ar 3 types. Good, Bad and Indifferent Neutral.
1. Species
Simply Refers to The circumstances surrounding The action.
2. Accidents
Stands for The agents intention.
3. End
is a “hard to eradicate” quality
habit
2 types of Habits
- Acquired - The autonomous will of the person plays a huge role in acquired habits.
-
Infused - Directly instilled by God in our faculties.
* Moral- Activities that are less virtuous and inferior to the final end.
o To this kind belongs Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance and Justice
* Theological- Are concerned directly with God.
o The virtues of Faith, Hope and Love serve to attune us to our final end
The autonomous will of The person plays a huge role in acquired habits.
1. Acquired
Directly instilled by God in our faculties.
2. Infused
