Cognition/Memory (8-10%) Flashcards
Memory
process by which information is acquired (encoded) stored in the brain and later retrieved
Flash-bulb Memory
a vivid, long lasting memory of a surprising important, emotionally arousing event (9/11) (STRONG emotion)
Memory is affected by…
- how well we focus our attention, our motivation
- interference from other events and experiences
- how much we practice or rehearse
- our state of consciousness when we learn something our state of consciousness when we recall it (colors of memory in inside out)(Mood Congruence Theory)
Cue Dependence Theory
recall best when encoding cues present during encoding are present during retrieval; these encoding cues are called encoding specificity
-AKA State Dependence
-emotional state, environmental context, mood congruence
Sensory Memory
split second holding tank for incoming sensory information
-all info from your senses (less than a second)
-passed to STM or forgotten
Types of Sensory Memory
Iconic: photographic, split second photo of a scene
Echoic: equally brief memory of sound
Short Term Memory (STM)
if we pay attention to a stimulus from our senses it reaches STM
-also called working memory
-can store a few items of unrehearsed information for up to 30 seconds
-holds info retrieved from LTM
Rote/Maitenance Learning
repeating info without assigning meaning keep it in STM (doesn’t go to LTM)
Encoding
conversion of information into a form that can be stored in memory
Types of Encoding
-visual code (images)
-acoustic code (sounds) *most used
-semantic code (meanings, knowledge)
Selective Attention
determines which sensory messages get encoded
-we encode what we are attending to or what is important to us
Storage in STM
about 7 pieces of info
-storage = retention of information in memory
Chunking
trick your STM, combining units of meaningful information
Retrieval
recovery of information from LTM; we scan information one at a time not all at once
Forgetting in STM
failure to retrieve information
Decay
fading of information that is not rehearsed
Displacement
new info will push out older information (5-9 pieces in STM)
Long Term Memory (LTM)
can store unlimited amount of information for unlimited amount of time
-STM anf LTM go through encoding, storing, and retrieving of info
-earliest memories are from 3-4 years old
Elaborative Rehearsal
organizing new information to make it more meaningful, and integrating it with info already in LTM
Levels of Processing Theory
the deeper you process something the easier it is to remember
-learning and understanding -> most important
Encoding Failure
your brain fails to create a memory link (often because of distraction, you don’t elaborately rehearse, or don’t deeply process information)
Storage in LTM
deeply processed information is better remembered than shallowly processed information
Craik and Tulving
claims that we best recalled material that has been processed by meaning; apply the information
Types of Memories
Procedural Memories: how to perform skill
Declarative Memories: factual information
-Semantic Memories: general info, facts
-Episodic Memories: personal experiences
Semantic Network Theory
memories are stored as nodes (concepts)
-spreading activation: when retrieving a node it stimulates related nodes
Schema
cognitive structure that organizes knowledge about events or objects
Schema Theory
episodic and semantic memories are stored as schemas for better organization and recall
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon (TOT)
temporary inability to remember information
Serial Position Effect
Primacy Effect: more likely to recall items at the beginning of the list
Recency Effect: more likely to recall items at the end of the list
Retrieval Cues
when things in your environment trigger memories
Elizabeth Loftus
misinformation effect and eyewitness memory, and the creation and nature of false memories, including memories of childhood sexual abuse
-proven that leading questions can influence us to recall false details
-feel like accurate memories to the person recalling it
Framing
refers to the way that a problem is presented, messes with your own confidence
Eyewitness Testimonies
-likely to contain errors
-estimates 10% of our prisoners are innocent
-different ethnicities are involved
-lawyers ask leading questions
-people allege that others have answered in a certain way
Retrieval in LTM
report false details of real events or remember an event that never occurred, especially with leading questions
Reconstruction/Constructive Recall
altering memories to fit schemas
Method of Savings (relearning)
comparing number of trials needed to memorize info and the number of trials needed to memorize it again
Ebbinghaus
explored relationship between forgetting and time; proved the relearning effect
Long Term Potentiation
increased efficiency of synaptic transmission between certain neurons following learning
Recall
-type of retrieval
-total retrieval of information
-ex. fill in the blank, FRQ
-hard
Recognition
-identify previous items learned
-ex. multiple choice
-easy
Forgetting in LTM (Decay Theory)
forgetting because we do not use a memory or connections to a memory for a long time
Interference Theory (PORN)
-proactive interference: old memories interfere with the ability to remember new
-retroactive interference: new memories interfere with old memories
Motivation Theory
motivated to forget
-Freud called it repression
Replacement
when new information replaces old information
-VCR recording something new over an old show
Your brain and memory
-hippocampus creates new information, stores new information, and the transfer from STM to LTM
-amygdala creates emotional memories mainly fear/anger (PTSD)
-thalamus stores memories
Retrograde Amnesia
difficulty recalling old memories
-damage to thalamus
Anterograde Amnesia
can’t form new memories
-damage to hippocampus
-prone to confabulation, which is using plausible guesses to fill in missing memories
Procedural Memory
how to perform a task
-stored in the cerebellum
Acetycholine
-major neurotransmitter
-connected to Alzheimer’s
Explicit Memory
intentional recollection of an event or knowledge
- try to remember and you do
Implicit Memory
when information from the past unintentionally is recalled
Mnemonic Device
technique for organizing information to be memorized to make it easier to remember
Pegword
memorizing a list of nouns that rhyme with the numbers 1,2,3 etc (Dusty Dino)
Narrative
linking items in a story
Method of Loci
linking items with items in rooms
-ex podium= state dependence theory
Hueristics
short cut, rule that is generally but not always true that we can use to make judgements in a situation, can lead to problems we use rules of thumb to describe people and situations (confabulation)
Availability Heuristic
mental shortcut that relies on most recent information
-if you watched news about a plane crash the next plane you ride will crash
Representativeness Heuristic
an estimate of the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example
Algorithm
step by step directions on how to systematically solve a problem
-mathematical formula
-guessing every possible password
If you know how to solve a problem…
algorithm
If you don’t know how to solve a problem…
heuristic
Belief Bias
when we make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
Hindsight Bias
explains the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome
Confirmation Bias
tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true
Rigidity/Mental Set
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
Functional Fixedness
inability to see a new use for an object
Phonemes
smallest unit of sound (English has 44)
-English speakers con’t roll r’s because it is not one of our phonemes
-easiest to learn when young
Morphemes
smallest unit of meaning, phonemes put together become morphemes and make up words
Syntax
words that are properly ordered
