Chapter 7: Cognition Flashcards
What is mental imagery?
Representations that stand for objects or events and have picture-like quality
Give and example of mental imagery
Map of locations (mountains, rocks, villages, etc.)
What are concepts?
Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, and activities
What are superordinate concepts?
Most general form of a concept, members are minimally similar
Give an example of a superordinate concept
Furniture
What are basic concepts?
Highest class that can be represented by a single mental image
What are subordinate concepts?
Members are less distinct from one another
Give an example of a basic concept
Chair
Give an example of a subordinate concept
Rocking chair
What are formal concepts?
Defined by specific rules or features
Give an example of a formal concept
A square has 4 equal sides, and 4 90 degree angles
What are natural concepts?
Formed as a result of experience in the real world
Give an example of a natural concept
Is a platypus a bird or a fish? We would not know if we wouldn’t have been taught it
What is problem solving?
Thinking and behaving in certain ways to reach a goal
What is trial and error problem solving?
Trying one possible solution after another until a successful one is found
Give an example of trial and error problem solving
Trying to log in into a website account with different passwords
What is algorithm problem solving?
Step by step strategies that guarantee a solution, but may be time-consuming
Give an example of algorithm problem solving
Solving a derivative in calculus using chain rule
What is heuristic problem solving?
Saving time by skipping steps to solve a problem, may not lead to solution
Give an example of heuristic problem solving
Looking for your keys in a house by only looking in places your keys would accurately be in
What is means-end analysis?
Breaking down a large goal into smaller, more manageable goals
Give an example of means-end analysis
Essay due: research –> making outline –> writing intro paragraph –> essay
What is working backwards?
Starting with desired outcome and working backwards to current situation
Give an example of working backwards
Going to college to get a degree to become nurse
What is searching for analogies?
Employ same kind of strategies used to solve similar problems
Give example of searching for analogies
Fixing NASA telescope to get clearer, better quality pictures
What is modifying your representation of the problem?
Focusing on different aspects of the problem
Give an example of modifying your representation of the problem
Landing Apollo 13 by focusing on what parts of the shuttle were working, not ones that weren’t
_____ amounts of knowledge an expert has about their area increases their ______ ______.
Enormous, chunking capacity
What is insight?
“Sudden” realization regarding the solution to a problem, “AHA moment”
What is the process of the aha moment?
Alter assumptions about solutions, conceive of problem differently, and receive new connections among facts
What is functional fixedness?
Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways
Give example of functional fixedness
Using a shoe to put a nail in the wall if you don’t have a hammer
What is mental set?
Tendency to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked in the past
What are availability heuristics?
Making judgements about certain outcomes based on how easily we can produce examples of outcome
Give an example of availability heuristics
Wanting to buy the same kind of car as your friend, but your friend says the gas mileage is not good so you do not buy the car
What are representativeness heuristics?
Judging probability based one how well an option seems to exhibit representative characteristics
Give an example of representativeness heuristics
Base rate
What is base rate?
Prevalence of a trait in the target population
Give an example of base rate
Do plumbers or librarians write more poetry? Plumbers do because there are more plumbers in the population than librarians though they would write more poetry
What is the gambler’s fallacy?
Mistaken belief that the probabilities of independent events are actually related
Give an example of the gambler’s fallacy
Flipping a coin and thinking it’s going to land on tails because it has landed on tails the past two times even tho the coin is always going to land on heads/tails 50% of the time
What is anchoring and adjustment?
Establishing baseline for evaluation and adjusting one’s judgment according to that baseline
Give an example of anchoring and adjustment
Asking subjects how long they think the Mississippi River is after giving them two different baselines
What is overconfidence?
People’s confidence in their own knowledge and ability exceeds their actual knowledge and ability
Give an example of overconfidence
Putting on makeup in the car because they believe that they are a good enough driver to do so
What is confirmation bias?
We tend to see what we expect to see because we tend to search only for evidence that supports their hunch (not contradicts)
Give an example of confirmation bias
Believing in having a “hot hand” in basketball, cannot miss a shot and disregarding scientific evidence that a “hot hand” cannot exist
What is decision making?
Evaluating alternative actions and choosing the appropriate one
What is bounded rationality?
When we cannot know everything there is to know about a situation, we are rational within the boundaries of knowledge
What is elimination by aspects?
Focusing on key aspects and eliminating all alternatives that do not meet criteria
Give an example of elimination by aspects
Buying a house based on price, age of house, etc.
What is satisficing?
Choosing the first alternative that satisfies our needs
Give an example of satisficing
Buying the first house that meets criteria without looking at all options
What is creativity?
Solving problems by combining ideas and behavior in new ways
What is convergent production?
Correct response
What is divergent production?
Possible response
Creativity may be _____ through training
Improved
What are creative characteristics?
Above average intelligence, not afraid to be different, and value independence
