Chapter 5 (Macromolecules) Flashcards
What are macromolecules?
macromolecules are large molecules composed of covalently bonded small molecules
What is dehydration synthesis?
Taking water away (produced as a product) in order to piece molecules together
What is hydrolysis?
adding water (as a reactant) in order to break down molecules
What are the four classes of macromolecules?
lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids
In terms of polarity, most lipids are ____
In terms of polarity, most lipids are non-polar and hydrophobic
Hydrocarbons determine whether the molecule is ____ or _____
polar or non-polar
What are the classes of lipids?
fats, phospholipids, steroids
The major function of fats is to ____
the major function of fats is to store energy
In addition to storing energy, fats also help by _____
In addition to energy storage, fat also helps by insulating animals for warmth and acting as a shock absorber
What is glycerol?
glycerol is a three-carbon chain with a hydroxyl group on each carbon
H
I
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
I
HWhat are fatty acids?
fatty acids are carboxyl groups with a long hydrocarbon chain (acid cuz it can donate H+)
O H H H H H
II I I I I I
HO - C - C - C - C - C - C - H
l l l l l l
H H H H H H
What is a fat composed of?
1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids create Ester linkages through dehydration synthesis
Do saturated fats have double bonds or single bonds?
saturated fats have single bonds
Are saturated fatty acids linear or bent?
Saturated fatty acids are linear
Do unsaturated fats have double bonds or single bonds?
Double bonds
Are unsaturated fats linear or bent?
Bent
At room temp. Saturated fats are ____
at room temp. Saturated fats are solid
Saturated fats have the ____ of hydrogen atoms possible
saturated fats have the max amount of hydrogen atoms possible
Cis-unsaturated means ____
cis-unsaturated means there is a double bond and at those double bond, two hydrogens are symmetrical
H H
C = C
What is hydrogenation?
hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats into saturation fats by introducing hydrogen atoms
What is partial hydrogenation?
partial hydrogenation is when hydrogens rearrange their orientation and become asymmetrical trans fats
What are trans fats?
partially unsaturated, asymmetrical hydrogens
H
x \
C = C
x x x \
x x x x H
Can trans fats be processed by humans?
no
What do phospholipid groups contain?
a glycerol molecule (3 hydrocarbon chains with hydroxide on each carbon), phosphate group, and 2 fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains with carboxyl at the end), and choline
Phospholipids are a major component of all _____ ______
phospholipids are a major component of all cell membrane
What do phospholipids self-assimilate into?
the phospholipid bilayer the cell membrane
The types of phospholipids are based on what?
the nitrogenous compound in the hydrophilic head called Phosphatidylcholine
In the phospholipid bilayer, what is the hydrophilic part?
the head
In the phospholipid bilayer, what is the hydrophobic part?
the tails facing inward
Are all phospholipids the same?
NO
What kind of distribution do phospholipids have?
asymmetrical
What class do steroids belong to?
lipids
What are steroids composed of?
4 interconnected carbon rings
What are steroids generated/made with?
cholesterol
What is cholesterol?
the base molecule for steroid hormones like corticosteroid
How are cholesterol and phospholipids the same?
they both have different side chains, so they come in a variety
What are carbohydrates also called?
simple sugars
What are the building blocks of carbohydrates?
monosaccharides
What is the most common monosaccharide?
glucose (C6H12O6)
How are carbohydrates classified by?
how many carbons they have and the location of the carbonyl group, oxygen to 2 hydrogen ratio
Which two classes of macromolecules are closely linked?
lipids and carbohydrates
Do we really need carbohydrates?
no
Why don’t we need carbohydrates?
our bodies were meant to use fat as the main energy source, not carbohydrates
Regarding carbohydrates, what does every cell have the ability to do?
generate glucose and break down glucose
What are some monosaccharides?
glucose, fructose, galactose
When we eat, do we get sugars in the disaccharide form or the monosaccharide form?
disaccharide
What are some disaccharides?
sucrose, lactose, maltose
How are carbohydrates processed and broken down by the body?
- sucrose molecule trigger a pathway perception that makes the body want more since disaccharides are rare to find in nature
- glucose and fructose get into the bloodstream to get cheap energy
Is fructose bad or good? why?
Fructose is bad because the human body can’t process it, it gets sent to the liver to be usable with alcohol
Is there such thing as naturally occurring fructose and sucrose?
nope
How do we store excess sugar?
we store excess sugar in the form of fat molecules
What is the glycemic index?
how quickly the blood sugar spikes in relation to the glucose consumption
How many g of gram does the WHO recommend per day? (not needed actually)
25 g
How do we name omega acids?
count the number of carbons it takes to reach the double bond from the terminal end of the chain (methyl group CH3)
What are the bonds between covalent sugar monomers called?
glycosidic bonds
How are carbohydrate polymers built?
with monosaccharides like glucose
What are the uses for polysaccharides?
Structural (to build) and storage (for energy)
Where is starch stored?
in plants
What is starch made of?
starch is entirely made of glucose monomers
What is amylose?
a type of starch (storage)
What kind of linkage does amylose have in terms of structure?
1-4 bonds (helical), there are only two ends to “chew” up
What is amylopectin?
a type of starch (storage)
What kind of bond does amylopectin have in terms of structure?
1-6 (branches) , there are many ends to “chew up”
Where can you find starch stored?
in plastids (organelle of plant)
Why is starch so important?
they are able to break down very fast for energy
What is starch?
a type of carbohydrate found in plants, used for energy storage
What is glycogen?
a type of polymer carbohydrate found in animals, used for energy storage
Why is glycogen made of?
glycogen is entirely made of glucose monomers
What kind of linkage does glycogen take on mostly?
the branch-like structure (1-6)
Where is glycogen stored?
in the liver and in our muscle cells
What are the two structural polysaccharides?
chitin and cellulose
Where is chitin found?
in the exoskeleton of arthropods and in fungi cell walls
Where is cellulose found?
in the cell walls of a plant, is a major component for rigid structure
In what forms can you find cellulose?
alpha and beta
What monomer is cellulose composed of?
cellulose is made of glucose, but the rings differ slightly
What is the beta form in cellulose?
when the hydroxyl is at the top of the ring
What is the alpha form of cellulose?
when the hydroxyl is at the bottom of the ring
both ___ and ___ make 1-4 linkages in terms of structural polysaccharides
both chitin and cellulose make 1-4 linkages in terms of structural polysaccharides
Mostly, cellulose is composed of what kind of forms?
the beta form, where hydroxyl is up and the composition is straight
Mostly, starch is composed of what kind of form?
the alpha form, where hydroxyl is at the bottom and is helical
When cellulose is straight and parallel to one another, what can it do?
pack together to tightly make a solid structure, hydrogen bonds allow or holding bonds together
How do we, as humans, burn polymers?
enzymes
What can enzymes do in terms of carbohydrates?
CAN digest starch
What can’t enzymes do in terms of carbohydrates?
CAN’T digest cellulose
What happens to the undigested cellulose?
it passes through the digestive tract
The indigestible cellulose in our body is called what?
fiber
What are the categories for fiber?
insoluble and soluble
How do we determine the categories for fiber?
does the fiber like water or no?
What does soluble fiber do to you?
slows down, digestion, absorbs water, becomes a larger mass, and makes you full
What does insoluble fiber do to you?
helps intestinal tract bacteria be healthy since the bacteria break the fiber down and give us nutrients
What are nucleic acids?
nucleic acids material of inheritance
What are genes?
genes are regions of DNA
Linked strand of nucleotide, hydroxyl, and a phosphate group is called what type of link?
phosphodiester linkage
What is a phosphodiester linkage?
covalently bonded nucleotides, hydroxyl, and a phosphate group between the nucleotides
What is unique about a phosphodiester linkage?
it has direction from 3’ to 5’
The hydroxyl in a phosphodiester linkage is located on which carbon?
the 3’ carbon
The phosphate group in a phosphodiester linkage is located on which carbon?
the 5’ carbon
What kind of symmetry is there with nucleotides?
it is asymmetrical, it leads to direction
What do you build nucleic acids with?
nucleotides
What is a nucleic acid made up of?
a 5-carbon-sugar, nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
What are also on each nucleic acid?
sugars (pentose)
Since the hydroxyls are polar and have a negative charge in the nucleic acids, what happens?
they repel each other and can either lose all oxygen or still keep it
Does deoxyribose (DNA) have oxygen?
no, it is stable
Does ribose (RNA) have oxygen?
yes, it is flexible to change
What is ribose involved in?
making proteins, transporting, and metabolism
_____ can’t be made without RNA
DNA can’t be made without RNA
What are the two families of nitrogenous bases?
pyrimidines and purines
What are pyrimidines?
have a single six-membered ring aka just a hexagon
What are the examples of pyrimidines?
cytosine, thymine, and uracil
What are purines?
have a six-membered ring fused to a five membered ring aka a hexagon and a pentagon together
What are the examples of purines?
adenine and guanine
The carbon primes in nucleic acids are located where?
in the pentose NOT the nitrogenous base
How does DNA look?
two polynucleotides strands spiraling an imaginary axis aka double helix
The two polynucleotide strands in DNA run in _____ fashion
the two polynucleotide strand in DNA run in antiparallel/opposite fashion
What does adenine bond to ?
thymine for DNA and uracil in RNA
What does guanine bond to?
guanine bonds to cytosine for both DNA and RNA
What are proteins for?
the protein --> said, the, cruel, man S - Storage T - Transport C - communication M - movement
In proteins ____ = function
In proteins, shape = function
What are the building blocks of proteins?
amino acids
What are amino acids composed of?
central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group (NO PHOSPHORUS)
H R O
\ I //
N -- C -- C
/ I \
H H OH
What is an R group in an amino acids?
they are what link together with the other components to become a specific protein
What is a polymer linkage of amino acids called?
polypeptide
What are the covalent bonds between amino acids called?
peptide bonds, they form the backbone of proteins
H R H R OH
I I I I /
H -N - C - C - N - C - C
peptide bond
I II I \\
H O H OAre peptide bonds symmetrical or asymmetrical?
asymmetrical
What is at the start of peptide bonds (n-terminus)?
a free amino group
What is at the end of a peptide bond (c-terminal)?
carboxyl
What are the three levels of protein structure called?
primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary
What is the primary structure of a protein?
the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
oooo
o
o
o
oooo
o
o
oooo
What is the secondary structure of a protein?
the interaction of primary structure within iteself, it shows hydrogen bonding of the polypeptide BACKBONE INTERACTION aka hydrogen bonds
What does the secondary structure of a protein NOT portray?
they DON’T portray the R groups
What are typical secondary structures called?
alpha helix (coil) and beta pleated sheets
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
the actual 3D shape that has to do with the side chains, they are the interactions with the R groups, distant group interactions stabilized by hydrogen bonds
What does the tertiary structure of a protein NOT portray?
interactions with the backbone, its just the R group interaction
What types of bonding and interactions do R-groups able to do?
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonding, hydrophobic interactions
What is the disulfide bridge?
a covalent bond using the SH group of at the terminal end and two cysteine amino acids
What type of structure do ALL proteins need?
the tertiary structure
What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule (ex: collagen)
Do proteins need the quaternary structure?
No, proteins don’t need the quaternary structure of a protein
How does a protein get its structure?
the primary amino acid sequence and the physical and chemical conditions (pH, temp ex)
What is denaturation of a protein?
loss of the 3D shape, loss of structure PROTEIN NOT BROKEN DOWN
What is an example of a type of starch that has 1-4 linkages?
amylose, spiral straight
What is an example of a type of starch that has 1-6 linkages?
amylopectin, branching spirals
Hydrocarbon chains are polar or non-polar?
non-polar
What are amphipathic molecules?
fat molecules that have a hydrophilic and hydrophobic side
What makes fats so hydrophobic?
the HYDROPHOBIC hydrocarbon tails that have nonpolar bonds
What vitamin allows us to get cholesterol?
vitamin D
What are carbohydrates made of?
hydrocarbon chain with hydroxyl on one side, usually carbonyl group (C=O) at one end making it aldehyde
How do you name carbons on carbohydrates?
within the ring, wherever you see the O in the ring start count 1,2,3.. once to the right of the O
What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
What are nucleotides made of?
a nitrogenous base, phosphate group, ribose
