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A & P I > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Histology

A

Study of tissues

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2
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Tight packed sheets of cells

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3
Q

Connective Tissues

A

Bind, support, protect and allows for transportation;

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4
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

Generating force by contracting ;

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5
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Cells capable of generating, sending, receiving messages, and cells that support this activity

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6
Q

Extracellular Matrix

A

ECM;
Liquid surrounding cells of a tissue;
Two components: ground substance & protein fibers

Functions:
Tensile-stretches (PULL)
Compressive forces (PUSH)

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7
Q

(A) Ground substance

A

Consists of ECF;

Includes water, nutrients, ions and macromolecules

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8
Q

Glycoaminoglycan (GAGs)

A

Example- Chondroitin sulfate and Hyaluronic acid

Functions:
Draw water out of cells & blood vessels by [Osmosis]
Trap water in ECM and Resist comprehension/compression

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9
Q

Proteoglycans

A

Bound to a protein core;

Functions:
Resistant to compression
Barrier to diffusion from invading microorganisms

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10
Q

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

A

[Glyco]proteins;
GLYCO=GLUCOSE

Functions:
Adhere cell to cell- holds everything in place;
Bind to cell surface proteins
Maintain normal tissue structure- keep its shape;

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11
Q

(B) Protein Fibers

A

Long molecules;
Rope like structure;
Tensile strength;

3 types:
Collagen
Elastic
Reticular

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12
Q

Collagen Fiber

A

Resistant to tension & pressure

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13
Q

Elastic Fiber

A

[Yellow Fibers]
Protein elastin;
Stretch; Once stretched fibers [return] to resting [length] elasticity

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14
Q

Reticular Fiber

A

Short collagen fibers; Form mesh work
Weblike structure;

Functions:
Supports cells
Traps foreign cells (3D network)

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15
Q

Cell Junction

A

Cells bind to one another;

3 types:
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions

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16
Q

Tight Junctions

A

[Occluding Junctions]
Impermeable to big molecules

Function:
Holds cells together;
Forms a seal around perimeter (outside) cell; Once Locked
Allows for some leakage

Example:
Found between cells in blood vessels; [Preventing] blood from [Exiting] vessels

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17
Q

Desmosomes

A 
Functions:
Link proteins;
[Allows] materials to [Pass] through [Between Cells]
Increase strength 
Structural reinforcement

Located:
In tissues subjected to [Mechanical Stress]- pulling,
Such as [Epithelia of Skin]

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18
Q

Gap Junctions

A

Small pores;

Functions:
[Allow] small [Substances] to [Flow freely];

Communicate with Electrical Signals
Example- cardiac muscle cells

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19
Q

Epithelial Tissues

A

On [Every Internal & External] body surface;
Line organs;

Functions:
Protection from [Mechanical] & [Thermal] Injury
Forms [Barriers]; Protect against Immune Defenses
Forms glands such as [Hormones & Oils]
Transport in other tissues-Selectively Permeable;
Sensation-Change in Internal & External environment (Taste Buds)

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20
Q

Components of Epithelial Tissue

A

Tight packed cells;
Tight packed Junctions & Desmosomes

Functions:
Make sheets of cells [Impermeable & Resistant] to [Stress & Injury];

Avascular Tissue:
[Lacks blood vessels]- Must obtain Oxygen through [Diffusion]
ECM=Basement Membrane;

Two Components:
Basal lamina
Reticular lamina

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21
Q

Basal Lamina

A

Collagen fibers & Ground substance; [Epithelial Cells]

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22
Q

Reticular Lamina

A

*[Connective Cells] *

Reticular fibers

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23
Q

[Together] Basal Lamina and Reticular Lamina do what ?

A

The layers [GLUE] or [ANCHOR];

Form a [BARRIER]

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24
Q

What [TWO] components [CLASSIFY] Epithelial Tissue?

A

( a ) Number & ( b ) Shape;

(A) 1. Simple Epithelia [Single Layer]
2. Stratified Epithelia [2+ Layers]

(B) 1. Squamous Cells [FLAT]

   2. Cuboidal Cells [SHORT]
   3. Columnar Cells [TALL, ELONGATED]
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25
Q

Covering & Lining of Epithelia

A

Inner & Outer surfaces;

[Simple Epithelia] :
One layer thick for Diffusion

[Stratified Epithelia]
More than one layer for [Protection & High Stress]

[MICROVILI] - Increase Surface Area
[CILIA] - Moving Substances

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26
Q

4 Types of Simple Epithelia

A
  1. Simple Squamous:
    Very thin layer;

Functions:
Diffusion of substances - oxygen, carbon dioxide, fluids, and ions

Located: Air sacs, kidney tubules, and blood vessel lining

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27
Q

4 types of Simple Epithelia

A
  1. Simple Cuboidal:
    Single layer with large nucleus

Located: Tubules [tubes], respiratory passages, ducts of glands, and thyroid gland

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28
Q

4 types of Simple Epithelia

A
  1. Simple Columnar:
    Rectangle shaped- Single layer;
    Nuclei on Bottom, Microvili on Top (increase surface area)
    Or Cilia (propels substance)

Located:
In small intestine, uterine tubes, and respiratory tract

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29
Q

Pseudostratified Columnar

A

[Appears] to be [Layered], but it is [Simple] due to [Different Nuclei Heights]

Located:
Respiratory tract & Nasal cavity; [Ciliated]

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30
Q

Transportation across Epithelia

A
  1. Paracellular: [Para=Between]
    Little leakage [Between Cells] due to tight junctions
  2. Transcellular : [Trans=Cross]
    Substance enters by crossing the membrane, then diffusing across cytosol, and then exiting cell through plasma membrane
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31
Q

Keratinized Stratified Squamous

A

Filled with [Keratin]-> making cells tough and resistant to friction;

Located:
Outer layer of skin

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32
Q

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

A

Retains [Nuclei]; (alive)
Regions where mechanical stress is there to [Keep Moist]

Located:
Mouth, throat, esophagus, anus, and vagina

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33
Q

Stratified Cuboidal

A

Rare;

Located:
Sweat gland ducts

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34
Q

Stratified Columnar

A

Rare;

Located:
Male urethra, cornea of eye, and salivary glands

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35
Q

Transitional Epithelium

A

[Only] found in Urinary system

Location:
Kidney, uterus, urinary bladder, and urethra

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36
Q

Gland

A

Structure that synthesizes & secretes a product;

*Products are released by two systems:
Endocrine
Exocrine

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37
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

Secretes their products (hormones) directly in bloodstream without ducts:

  • [Ductless or No Ducts]*
  • Can have an [Effect] on distant cells
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38
Q

Exocrine Gland

A
  • Multicellular *
  • Release product on surfaces on the [External] surface;
  • [Line] hollow organ that opens to outside of body

Local Effects:
Glands vary in Complexity

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39
Q

Glandular Epithelia:

Goblet Cell

A

[Common Gland]
[UNI] cellular gland; [UNI=ONE]
Secretes [Mucus]

Located:
Digestive & Respiratory tract

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40
Q

Glandular Epithelia

A

Duct structure:

  • Simple
  • Compound
  1. Simple:
    Don’t branch;
  2. Compound:
    Branch;

[Classify as Shape]

  • Tubular: Long; Straight
  • Acinar: Spherical
  • Tubuloacinar: Tube & Acinar shaped
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41
Q

Two methods for [Secreting] products :

Classifying

A
  1. Merocrine Secretion:
    (Molecules) - Majority of exocrine glands
    - Release by exocytosis
    Example-
    Saliva & Sweat
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42
Q

Holocrine Secretion

A

(Whole):

  • Skin to create Sebum [Oil]
  • Only release when cell ruptures & dies
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43
Q

Connective Tissue

A

-Divides into 2 groups
-Differs in cell types & ECM components :
Connective tissue proper & Specialized connective tissue

Functions:
-Connecting & Binding
(Anchor tissue layers in organs and linking them together)
-Support
(Bone & Cartilage support body’s weight)
-Protection
(Bone tissues protect Internal organs; Cartilage & fat provide absorption)
-Transport
(Blood is fluid connective tissue; Main [Transport] in body)

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44
Q

Connective Tissue Proper

A

Widely distributed in body;
Connect tissues & Organs;
Components of Internal architecture of some organs;

Cells:
(Resident Cells)
-Inhabit the tissue permanently;
-Migrant cells migrate

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45
Q

Fibroblasts

A

(Common Resident Cell)

Functions:

  • Mature cells with properties of Immune “Blast” cells;
  • Make protein fibers & ground substance;
  • Continually produce collagen proteins
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46
Q

Adipocytes

A
  • (Fat cells)*
  • In many different connective tissues;
  • Cytoplasm filled with (Single) Lipid Inclusion
47
Q

Mast Cells

A
  • (Largest Resident Cell)*
  • Immune system cells filled with [Granules]—> cytosolic inclusions of [Histamine]—> inflammatory mediators
  • Release mediators [Degranulate] when stimulated, causing [Inflammation]—> protective response
48
Q

Phagocytes

A
  • (Immune System Cells)*
  • Ingest foreign substances, microorganisms, & dead/damaged cells by [Phagocytosis];
  • Includes [Macrophages]-> resident/migrant cells & [Neutrophils]-> migrant cells
49
Q

Other Immune System Cells

A

-Migrate In & Out of connective tissues depending on body’s needs

50
Q

4 types of Connective Tissue Proper:

A

(A) Loose Connective
(B) Dense Connective
(C) Reticular
(D) Adipose

51
Q

(A) Loose Connective Tissue

A

[Areolar Tissue]
-Mostly ground substance;
-Contains [all] 3 types of [Protein Fibers, Fibroblasts, & Adipocytes ( suspends in ground substance)]
-Contains & Supports blood vessels [Vital] to Avascular Epithelial Tissues;
(Houses Immune System cells)

Located:

  • Beneath epithelium of skin
  • In membranes lining body cavities
  • Within walls of hollow organs
52
Q

(B) Dense Connective Tissue

A 
Mostly Protein Fibers;
3 Classes:
- Dense Irregular
- Dense Regular
- Dense Regular Elastic
53
Q

Dense Irregular Tissue

A

[Disorganized Collagen Bundles]

  • Strong; Resists Tension in [All 3 movement planes]
  • In High Tension areas, [Dermis]-> deep to skin and surrounds organs & joints
54
Q

Dense Regular

A
  • Organized in Parallel Collagen bundles;
  • In Tendons & Ligaments;
  • Subject to tension in [1 Plane Movement]
55
Q

Dense Regular Elastic

A

-Parallel-oriented elastic fibers with random oriented collagen fibers;
-In walls of organs that [MUST] stretch to function;
(Large blood vessels & Ligaments)

56
Q

(C) Reticular Tissue

A

(Mostly Fibers, produced by Fibroblasts)
- Forms networks that support small structures;
(Blood & Lymphatic vessels)
-In lymph nodes & Splean;
(Forms [Weblike] nets that [Trap] old cells
-Forms part of basement membrane; Supports all Epithelia & Internal Structure of [Liver & Bone Marrow]

57
Q

(D) Adipose Tissue

A

[Fat Tissue]

  • Fat storing adipocytes, surrounding fibroblasts, and ECM;
  • Can increase in size

Functions:

  • Fat storage [Energy Reserve]
  • Insulation [Retains Warmth]
  • Shock absorption & protection
58
Q

2 Types of Adipose Tissue:

A
  1. White adipose tissue:
    - Fat tissue;
    - Adipocytes with [1] large lipid inclusion in cytosol
    - Deep to skin [Subcutaneous] fat

Located:
Abdomen, breasts, hips, buttocks, and thighs

[Visceral Fat] -> surrounds heart & abdominal organs

59
Q

2 Types of Adipose Tissue:

A
  1. Brown Adipose Tissue:
    - Brown appearance [Due To] numerous mitochondria in [Cytoplasm & Blood supply;
    - Contains multiple lipid inclusions
    - Readily converted to energy to produce heat
60
Q

Obesity

A

Excess adipose tissue;

2 Forms:

  • Hypertrophic
  • Hypercellular
61
Q

Hypertrophic

A
  • Accumulates fatty acids;
  • Increase size up to 4
  • Number of Adipocytes remains unchanged
62
Q

Hypercellular

A
  • Severe;
  • Number of Adipocytes Increases;
  • Obesity development in Infancy/early childhood
  • Adult Adipocytes lack ability to divide to form new cells
63
Q

What do both Hypertrophic & Hypercellular have in common?

A

Both increase risk of health problems

64
Q

3 Types of Specialized Connective Tissues:

A

Cartilage, Bone Tissue, & Blood

65
Q

1) Cartilage

A
  • Avascular;
  • Absorbs shock and Resists tension, Compression and Shearing forces;
  • ECM consists of Collagen and Elastic Fibers, Proteoglycans, & Glycosaminoglycans

Located:
In Joints between bones, ear, nose, & segments of respiratory tract

66
Q

2 Cell Types :

[Cartilage]

A
  1. Chondroblasts [Immature Cells];
    - Divide by Mitosis
  2. Surround themselves in [Lacunae]—> small cavities in ECM to become Inactive [Chondrocytes]
67
Q

3 Classes of Cartilage:

[Divided by ECM Composition]

A

1st class:

  • Hyaline Cartilage [Most Abundant]
  • Gives tissue glossy bluish-gray appearance;
  • On ends of bones in joints [ Articular Cartilage ] —> (Linking Sternum to Ribs, Framing sections of Respiratory Tract, & In Nose)
  • Most of Fetal Skeleton, replaced with Bone during development
68
Q

3 Classes of Cartilage:

[Divided by ECM Composition]

A

2nd Class:
Fibrocartilage:
- Filled with bundles of Collagen Fibers; Little room for Ground Substance.
- Fills ECM with Collagen & Elastic Fibers;
- Tissue has tensile strength with some elasticity;

Located:

  • Resides in Tissue;
  • In between Bones of Fibrous Joints;
69
Q

3 Classes of Cartilage:

[Divided by ECM Composition]

A

3rd Class:
Elastic Cartilage: [ Elastic Fibers in ECM ]
- Allows tissue to vibrate
- [External Ear] -> detection of sound in air;
- [Larynx] -> assists with production of sound;

70
Q

3 Types of Specialized Connective Tissues:

A

2) Bone Tissue :
- 65% of ECM is Inorganic Calcium Phosphate Crystals, which makes [Bone Hard];
- Dynamic Tissue:
[Remodeling]
Occurs in stress regions;
- Compression increases osteoclast activity & bone resorption

71
Q

Osteoblasts

A
  • Bone builders; Outer surface of Bones
  • Associated with [Periostenum];
  • Carries out bone deposition process;
72
Q

Osteocytes

A

[Mature Cells= Inactive]

  • Osteoblasts that surround themselves with ECM in Lacunae;
  • Make & Secrete substances for bone maintenance \
73
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • Large, multinucleated bone destroyers;
  • Carry out bone resorption process;
  • Secretes hydrogen ions & enzymes that break down Inorganic and Organic ECM
74
Q

3 Types of Specialized Connective Tissues:

A

3) Blood:

- ECM is fluid;

75
Q

Plasma Proteins

A

Small with different functions;

[ Transport of Substances & Blood Clotting ]

76
Q

Erythrocytes

A
  • [Red Blood Cells]*

- Bind to & Transports oxygen throughout body

77
Q

Leukocytes

A
  • [Unite Blood Cells]*

- Function in Immunity

78
Q

Platelates

A
  • [ Cell Fragments ]*

- Blood Clotting

79
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

For Contraction;
* Chemical energy of ATP [Into] Mechanical energy of movement *

Walking, breathing, heart beating result from Muscle Contraction

[Main Component] :
- Muscle Cell (Myocyte), which responds to electrical or chemical stimulation

80
Q

2 Forms of Muscle Cells:

A

[Based off of {Myofilaments} -> protein bundles; In cytoplasm]

  1. Striated
  2. Smooth
81
Q

Striated Muscle Cells

A

Arranged in light & dark regions;

[Appear striped under a microscope]

82
Q

Smooth Muscle Cells

A

Arranged in Irregular bundles;

83
Q

Endomysium

A
  • Small amount of ECM that surrounds Muscle Tissue;

- Helps hold Muscle Cells together in Tissue

84
Q

3 Types of Muscle Tissue:

A
  • (a) Skeletal
  • (b) Cardiac
  • (c) Smooth

*Both [Skeletal & Cardiac] are STRIATED *

85
Q

(A) Skeletal Muscle Tissue

A
  • Contraction produces body movement;
  • [Must Be] stimulated by nervous system to contract; [Voluntary]
  • Skeletal Cells [Muscle Fibers] are long;
  • Forms by fusion of embryonic myoblasts, resulting in cells with more than one nucleus [Muiltinucleate]
86
Q

(B) Cardiac Muscle Tissue

A

[ Only In Heart]
- Composed of Cardiac Muscle Cells; Striated
- Involuntary; Brain has [NO] control over contraction
- Cells are short, Branched;
- [Intercalated Disc]-> dark line separating individual muscle cells; Contains gap junctions & tight junctions
( Not In: Skeletal Muscle )
- Allows heart to contract as a Unit;

87
Q

(C) Smooth Muscle Tissue

A
  • Consists of Smooth Muscle cells;
  • Involuntary contractions;
  • In walls of nearly [ALL] hollow organs, blood vessels, eyes, skin, and ducts of certain glands;
  • Flattened cells with [1] located Ovoid Nucleus;
  • [In Most] the plasma membrane of neighboring cells are linked by Gap Junctions
88
Q

Nervous Tissue

A
  • Makes up the majority of Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves;

Two Main Types:

  1. Neurons
  2. Neurological Cells
89
Q

Neurons

A
  • Sends and Receives messages;
90
Q

Neurological Cells

A
  • Performs different functions and Supports neuron activities
91
Q

[Excitable] Neurons

A
  • Once mature, it is no longer divides by [Mitosis]

3 Main Components :

  • Cell body
  • Solitary Axon
  • Dendrites
92
Q

Cell body [Soma]

A
  • Biosynthetic center of Neuron;

Located:
In Nucleus & Most Organelles

93
Q

Solitary Axon

A
  • Extends from one end of Soma;

- Responsible for moving Nerve Impulses from Soma to [ Target Cell ]-> another neuron, muscle cell, or gland

94
Q

Dendrites

A
  • Another extension protruding from Soma;
  • Short with multiple branches
  • Receive Impulses from Axons or Neighboring Neurons
  • Delivers Impulses to Soma
95
Q

Neurological Cells

A

Group of smaller cells;
* Able to divide by Mitosis *

Functions:

  • Anchor neurons & Blood vessels in place;
  • Monitor composition of ECF
  • Speeds up nerve impulse rate
  • Circulates fluid surrounding the Brain & Spinal Cord
96
Q

Organ

A

Two or more Tissues;

Example : Skeletal Muscle

97
Q

2 Main Tissues of an Organ

A
  1. Skeletal Muscle

2. Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue

98
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

Allows for Contraction

99
Q

Collagenous Connective Tissue

A

Surrounding Connective Tissue binding the Muscle Cells together & supporting them so contraction of the whole organ produces again

100
Q

Trachea

A
  • More Complex Organ *
  • Hollow; Provides a passageway through which air passes on the way In & Out of lungs
  • Each tissue layer serves a role in overall function;
    Example: Conducting Air
101
Q

Membrane

A
  • Thin sheet of one or more tissues;
  • Lines body surface or the cavity :
    [Most] consist of superficial epithelial layer resting on the connective tissue layer;

Functions:
Anchors joints in place, serves as barriers, function in Immunity, & secretes various substances

102
Q

True Membrane

A

Serous and Synovial Membranes;

Example:
Serous or Serosae;
- Lines pericardial, peritoneal, and pleural cavities
- Consists of [Mesothelium]-> thin layer of squamous epithelium;
- Associated with basement membrane, and layer of the connective tissue;

2 layers that fold over themselves:

  1. Outer Parietal layer lines the body wall
  2. Inner Visceral layer covers organ within the body cavity
103
Q

Membrane-like Structure

A

Nucleus and Cutaneous

104
Q

Synovial Membranes

A
  • Line cavities surrounding joints ( knee or shoulder )
  • Two connective tissue layers [without] layer of epithelial cells

[OUTER LAYER] :
Composed of loose & dense irregular connective tissue

[INNER LAYER] :
( Synoviocytes ) -> modified fibroblasts;
- Secrete [Synovial fluid];
- Watery fluid

Function:
Lubricate the Joint

105
Q

Mucus Membrane

A

[Mucosac]
- Lines all passages opening to outside of the body:
Respiratory passages, mouth, nasal cavity, digestive tract, and male & female reproductive tracts;
- Layer of Epithelium and Basement Membrane (Connective Tissue, called Lamina Propria); Can be Smooth Muscle
- Contains glands with [Goblet Cells]
- Provides and Secretes mucus
- Serves several functions; For protection

106
Q

Cutaneous Membrane

A

[Skin]
Largest organ of the body;

Consists of -

  • Outer layer of [Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium]-> epidermis;
  • Tough, consistent protective surface;
107
Q

Dermis

A
  • Layer of Loose Connective Tissue beneath epidermis, along with a deep layer of dense irregular connective tissue;
  • Home to many blood vessels; Providing means for oxygen & nutrients to ( Diffuse ) into Avascular epidermis
108
Q

Friction Rub

A
  • Resulting in Grating sound; Can be heard with a stethoscope
  • Serous fluid secreted for lubrication becoming inadequate to reduce friction; Layers rub together as organs contract and expand;

Can cause chest pain

109
Q

Tissue Repair

A
  • Wound healing;
  • Dead or damaged cells are removed and then replaced with new cells or tissues;
  • Fills gap for maintenance of Homeostasis
110
Q

Tissue Repair Process

A
  1. Certain Tissues can Regenerate; 2. Damaged cells are replaced with cells of the same type; 3. When the process if finished, tissues return to normal function level; 4. Other tissues are [NOT] capable of full regeneration; 5. Fibroblasts fills gap left from Injury by [Fibrosis];

Fibrous Functions:

  • Fibroblasts divide by Mitosis; Produces collagen to fill the gap
  • End result of Fibrosis is Scar Tissue
111
Q

Capacity for Tissue Repair

A

Dependent on cells ability to undergo mitosis:

  1. Epithelial undergo regeneration: Skin & Digestive tract lining are subject to stress; Must bare mechanism for replacing dead, damaged, or worn out cells. New cells are derived from [Stem Cells]-> Immature cells capable of Mitosis
  2. Other Epithelial Tissues (Liver & Blood vessels) : Mature cells in the area of injury are capable of replacing that damaged cell by dividing
112
Q

Connective Tissue Regeneration

A
  • Connective Tissue Proper, Bone & Blood regenerate through division of resident immature cells;
  • Cartilage is an (exception); Heals by Fibrosis
113
Q

Smooth Muscle Regeneration

A
  • Retains ability to undergo Mitosis; Healed by regeneration
  • Mature Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Cardiac Muscle Cells have lost their ability to divide by Mitosis; Meaning it can’t regenerate

Satellite Cells:
Can divide and mature into skeletal muscle cells;
Cardiac Muscle Tissue, has [NO] satellite cells that results in injuries healed by Fibrosis

114
Q

Nervous Tissue undergoing Fibrosis

A
  • Neurons lost ability to divide by mitosis and replace the dead or damaged neurons with scar tissue;
  • Neurological cells retain ability to divide by mitosis and also replace the damaged neuron with scar tissue;
  • Axons of Neurons outside the brain and spinal cord can regenerate

A & P I (14 decks)

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