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Advanced Principles Of Neural Sciences > Chapter 17: Neurodevelopment, Disorders, Stress, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, And Substance Use Disorders > Flashcards

Chapter 17: Neurodevelopment, Disorders, Stress, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, And Substance Use Disorders Flashcards

1
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A
  • Failure to develop typical social relations
  • Impaired development of communicative ability
  • Presence of repetitive, stereotypes behaviors, fixated interests, or inflexible adherence to routines
  • Apparent increase of disease is from heightened awareness and broadening of the diagnostic criteria
  • Most display cognitive impairments
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2
Q

Autism Symptoms

A

Present from early childhood and limits or impairs everyday functioning

- Persistent impairment in reciprocal social communication social interaction
- Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities
- Atypical, delayed, or nonexistent language development
- Unusual interests and behaviors
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3
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder is […]

A

Autism Spectrum Disorder is strongly heritable

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4
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder is caused by wide variety of rare mutations

A

Especially those that interfere with neural development and communication

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5
Q

In ASD not all parts of the brain show the same growth

A

Regions that are most involved in functions impaired in autism show greatest growth early in life and slowest growth later in life

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6
Q

10% of all cases of ASD have […]

A

10% of all cases of ASD have defineable biological causes

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7
Q

The development of large number of […] axons inhibits the development of […] axons

A

The development of large number of short-range axons inhibits the development of long-range axons

  • increased white matter density in these areas
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8
Q

ASD changes in the brain prevent formation of […]

A

ASD changes in the brain prevent formation of theory of mind

- Difficulty inferring thoughts, feelings, and intentions of others

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9
Q

Structural- and functional-imaging research to investigate the neural basis of ASD

A
  • Lower activation of superior temporal sulcus (STS) and medial PFC
  • FFA fails to respond to human faces due to lack of interest
  • Abnormal development of the mirror neuron system
    • thinner cerebral cortex
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10
Q

Fusiforme Face Area and Autism

A

Little to no activity, due to lack of interest, not abnormalities

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11
Q

ASD behavior characteristics appear to be exaggeration of […]

A

ASD behavior characteristics appear to be exaggeration of male brain traits

- Largely controlled by exposure to prenatal androgens
- Masculinization
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12
Q

ASD changes in […] signaling may be involved

A

ASD changes in neuropeptide signaling may be involved

- Lower levels of oxytocin

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13
Q

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

A

Disorder characterized by uninhibited responses, lack of sustained attention, and hyperactivity

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14
Q

ADHD Symptoms

A
  • Appear so often that they interfere with ability to learn
    • Can affect individuals in childhood and adulthood
  • 6 or more of 9 symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity for at least 6 months
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15
Q

Inattentive Type

A
  • Doesn’t pay close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in school or job tasks
  • Has problems staying focused on tasks or activities, such as during lectures, conversations or long reading
  • Doesn’t seem to listen when spoken to
  • Doesn’t follow through on instructions and doesn’t complete schoolwork, chores or job duties
  • Has problem organizing tasks and work
  • Avoid or dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as preparing reports and completing forms
  • Often loses things needed in tasks or daily life
  • Is easily distracted
  • Forgets daily tasks
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16
Q

Hyperactive/impulsive type

A
  • fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat
  • not able to stay seated
  • runs about or climbs where it is inappropriate
  • unable to play or do leisure activities quietly
  • Always “on the go”
  • talks too much
  • blurts out an answer before a question has been finished
  • has difficulty waiting turn
  • interrupts or intrudes on others
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17
Q

ADHD Percentage

A

~ 5% of children

- boys are about 10 times more likely to be diagnosed

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18
Q

ADHD is often associated with […]

A

ADHD is often associated with aggression, conduct disorder, learning disabilities, depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem

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19
Q

ADHD most common treatment

A

Ritalin (DA reuptake inhibitor)

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20
Q

Possible Causes of ADHD

A
  • Hereditary factors
  • Resemble symptoms produced by damage to the prefrontal cortex (distractibility, forgetfulness, impulsivity, poor planning, and hyperactivity)
  • Hypothesis that is cause by under activity of DA transmission
    • Dose-response curve for the effects of methylphenidate follow inverted U-shaped function
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21
Q

ADHD Treatment

A
  • Behavioral therapy and medication can improve symptoms of ADHD
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22
Q

Stress Response

A
  • A physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations
    • Fight-or-flight response
  • Long-term adverse health effects result from the autonomic and endocrine responses
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23
Q

Fight-or-flight response

A

Species- typical response preparatory to fighting or fleeing

-thought to be responsible for some deleterious effects

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24
Q

Sympathetic Adrenal-Medullary System

A
  • Hypothalamus and sympathetic nervous system stimulate the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine (effects glucose metabolism) and norepinephrine
  • These catecholamine hormones initiate a rapid activation of the sympathetic NS
    • increased blood pressure, contributing to cardiovascular disease
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25
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis

A
  • Glucocorticoid is a stress-related hormone that has profound effects of glucose metabolism
    • Controlled by the activity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA axis)
  • Some elements of stress response produced by the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) by neurons in the brain
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26
Q

Glucocorticoid

A

Secretion is controlled by neurons in paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN)
- decrease sensitivity of gonads to LH

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27
Q

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

A

Stimulates anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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28
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids

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29
Q

Chronic Stress

A
  • Often leads to ill health
  • Most of the harmful effects of stress are produced by prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids
    • Increased blood pressure, damage to muscle tissue, steroid diabetes, infertility, inhibition of growth, inhibition of inflammatory responses, and suppression of the immune system
  • May be due to impaired regulation of the HPA axis
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30
Q

Allostasis

A

Process responding to stimuli and regaining and maintaining homeostasis, including change in set point of system to respond to stimuli that are outside range of typical homeostatic functioning

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31
Q

Allosteric Load

A

Cumulative and collective wear and tear on body systems when there is too much stress response or when stress response is not turned off

32
Q

Long-term exposure to glucocorticoids

A

Destroys neurons located in hippocampal formation

33
Q

Effects of Stress on Brain

A
  • Stressors throughout our lives increase the likelihood of memory problems as we grow older
  • Intense long-term stress can cause severe brain damage in primates
  • Stress of chronic pain has adverse effects on brain and cognitive behavior
34
Q

Exposure to Early Life Stress Reduces the Volume of […]

A

dorsomedial PFC

35
Q

Prenatal Stress

A
  • Interferes with normal development of hippocampus (dendritic atrophy), leading to long-lasting malfunctions in learning and memory
  • Can affect brain development and produces changes for life
36
Q

Resilience

A
  • Factors such as the presence of various protective hormones and controlled exposure to stress-related stimuli can promote resilience in the event of stress
  • Some experiences during early life can reduce reactivity to stressful situations in adulthood
    • Activated PVN and central nucleus of amygdala
37
Q

Protective hormones

A

Testosterone, neuropeptide Y, DHEA

38
Q

Immune System

A

Derives from white blood cells that develop in bone marrow and thymus gland

- Protects from viruses, microbes, fungi, and parasites
- Stress response can impair function of the immune system
- Stress-producing events can increase susceptibility to illness
39
Q

Antigen

A

Protein present on microorganism that permits immune system to recognize microorganisms as invader

40
Q

Antibody

A

Protein produced by cell of immune system that recognizes antigen present on invading microorganisms

41
Q

PTSD

A

Psych disorder caused by exposure to situation of extreme danger and stress

42
Q

PTSD Symptoms

A
  • Likelihood is increased if traumatic event involved danger or violence from other people
  • Includes recurrent dreams or recollections of the traumatic event (“flashback” episodes), feelings that the traumatic event is recurring, and intense psychological distress
  • Impaired mental health functioning
  • Poor physical health
43
Q

Genetic and Environmental Factors of PTSD

A
  • Correlation with the number of traumatic events the person experiences
  • People with a particular allele of the gene responsible for the production of COMT were more likely to develop PTSD
  • Shared genetic factors between PTSD and other mental health disorders and behavior tendencies
44
Q

COMT

A

Enzyme that degrades catecholamines

45
Q

Hippocampus in PTSD

A
  • PTSD associated with a smaller hippocampus
    • May predate the exposure to stress
  • Aids in distinguishing safe from dangerous contexts
  • Prefrontal cortex can exert an inhibitory effect on the amygdala and suppress emotional reactions
  • PTSD and TBI co-occur in many individual
    • overlapping brain regions in frontal cortex and changes in BDNF may be involved in both TBI and PTSD
46
Q

PTSD Treatment

A
  • Cognitive behavior therapy
  • Group therapy
  • Antidepressants
    • treatment with SSRIs resulted in reduced symptoms and improved cognitive function
47
Q

Some treatments focus on preventing PTSD following a traumatic event

A
  • Administration of cortisol to provide additional negative feedback to the HPA axis to reduce its activity
  • Block NE and Epi and increased GABAergic activity
  • Propanolol= interrupt consolidation or re consolidación of memory
48
Q

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and PTSD

A

Decreased symptoms of PTSD when stimulation left or right DLPFC

49
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A
  • Drug that lead to dependency act as a reinforcing stimulus
  • Effectiveness is greatest if a reinforcing stimulus occurs immediately after a response
    • Individuals who use drugs recreationally prefer heroin because it has a more rapid effect
50
Q

Neural Mechanisms of Reinforcement

A

Drug trigger the release of DA in NAc

51
Q

Produce long-term changes in brain: reinforcement

A
  • Drugs increase the strength of excitatory synapses on DAergic neurons in VTA
    • due to insertion of addition AMPA-Rs in postsynaptic membrane of DA neurons
  • Leads to increased activation in regions that receive DAergic input from VTA
    • ventral striatum (NAc) and dorsal striatum (caudate and putamen)
52
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A
  • A behavior that turns off (or reduces) an aversive stimulus is reinforced
  • People become physically dependent by showing tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
    • Compensate for the unusual condition of the repeated presence of a drug in the body
  • Maintain pattern of repeated drug use
53
Q

Craving and Relapse

A
  • Taking a drug over an extended period of time produces long-lasting changes in the brain that increase the likelihood of relapsing
  • Reinstatement model of drug seeking
  • Stressful situation can cause relapse
  • Stress that occurs early in life can have long-lasting effects on drug-taking behavior
  • Less activation of medial PFC
  • High level of comorbidity of schizophrenia and substance use disorders
54
Q

Reinstatement model of drug seeking

A

Cues can cause someone to take drugs even if they haven’t for a long time

55
Q

Less activation of medial PFC

A
  • deficits on tasks and structural abnormalities

- Involved in the extinction of conditioned emotional response

56
Q

Opiate Abuse

A
  • Opium derived from opium poppy
  • Many prescription pain relievers and designer drugs contain synthetic opiates
  • Stimulate opiate receptors on neurons in brain
    • Injections of opiates into NAc and VTA of mesolimbic DAergic pathway are reinforcing
57
Q

Opiate Receptors

A

PAG= analgesia
preoptic area= hypothermia
Mesencephalic reticular formation= sedation and reinforcement

58
Q

Stimulant Abuse

A
  • Cocaine and amphetamine are potent DA agonists

- Cocaine users are euphoric, active, and talkative

59
Q

Cocaine and amphetamine are potent DA agonists

A
  • Cocaine deactivates the dopamine transporter proteins

- Amphetamine stimulates the release of DA

60
Q

Nicotine Abuse

A
  • Accounts for more deaths than other drugs
  • Very high abuse potential
  • Stimulates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and released dopamine
    • The reinforcing effect is caused by activation of nicotinic receptors in VTA
61
Q

Alcohol Abuse

A
  • Indirect antagonist at NMDA receptors and indirect agonist at GABAa receptors
  • Produces both positive and negative reinforcement
    • Release of DA in the NAc
    • The reinforcing effect is partly caused by its ability to trigger the release of endogenous opioids
  • Effect of alcohol withdrawal are serious and can be fatal
    • Including widespread cell death through apoptosis
62
Q

Cannabis stimulates the […]

A

Cannabis stimulates the CB1

- endogenous ligands (anandamide and 2-AG)

63
Q

Cannabis Abuse

A
  • Produces memory impairment by disrupting the normal functions of the hippocampus
  • Incidence of psychotic disorders is increased in cannabis users, especially long-term
64
Q

THC is a […] of cannabinoid receptors and CBD is […]

A

THC is a partial agonist of cannabinoid receptors and CBD is an antagonist

65
Q

Therapeutic Interventions

A
  • Must be supported by research as effective treatment

- Successful treatment is challenging

66
Q

Opiates Abuse Treatment

A
  • Methadone maintenance

- Buprenorphine

67
Q

Methadone maintenance

A

Increases opiate level in brain slowly and does not produce high

68
Q

Buprenorphine

A

Partial agonist for the mu opiate receptor

- Blocks the effects of opiates and produces a weal opiate effect
- No abuse potential
69
Q

Stimulants Abuse Treatment

A

Vaccines that prevent cocaine molecules from crossing the BBB
- Become less sensitive to activating effects of cocaine

70
Q

Nicotine Abuse Treatment

A
  • Nicotine maintenance therapy
  • Buproprion
  • Varenicline
  • Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
  • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
71
Q

Nicotine maintenance therapy

A

Using chewing gum or transdermal patches

72
Q

Buproprion

A

Antidepressant drug that serve as a catecholamine reuptake inhibitor

73
Q

Varenicline

A

Serves as partial agonist for nicotinic receptor

74
Q

Alcohol Abuse Treatment

A
  • Naltrexone

- Acamprosate

75
Q

Naltrexone

A

Opiate antagonist that decreases the reinforcing value of alcohol

76
Q

Acamprosate

A

NMDA-receptor antagonist, reduces likelihood of drinking

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