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Advanced Principles Of Neural Sciences > Chapter 15: Neurological Disorders > Flashcards

Chapter 15: Neurological Disorders Flashcards

1
Q

Tumors

A

Mass of cells whose growth is uncontrolled and that serves no useful function

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2
Q

Malignant Tumor

A

Cancerous tumor

- Infiltrating: lacks distinct border and may metastasize

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3
Q

Benign Tumors

A

No cancerous tumor

- Encapsulated: has distinct border and can’t metastasize

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4
Q

Metastasis

A

Process by which cells break off of tumor, travel through vascular system and grow elsewhere in body

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5
Q

Compression

A

Can directly destroy brain tissue or indirectly block flow of CSF and cause hydroencephalus

Benign: compression only
Malignant: compression and infiltration

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6
Q

Tumor Causes

A
  • Come from cell found in the brain that are not nerve cells, or from metastases originating elsewhere in the body
  • Most serious types are metastases and gliomas
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7
Q

Gliomas

A

Cancerous brain tumor composed of several types of glial cells

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8
Q

Tumor Initiating Cell

A

Cells that originate from transformations of neural stem cells, rapidly proliferate, and give rise to glioma

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9
Q

Glioblastoma

A

Tumor arise in glial cells

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10
Q

Astrocytoma

A

Tumor arise in astrocytes

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11
Q

Ependymoma

A

Tumor arise in ependymal cells from the ventricles

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12
Q

Oligodendrocytoma

A

Tumor arise in oligodendrocytes

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13
Q

Meningioma

A

Tumor arise in cells of meninges

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14
Q

Neurinoma

A

Tumor arise in Schwann cells or cells of connective tissue covering cranial nerves

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15
Q

Angioma

A

Tumor arise in cells of blood vessels

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16
Q

Pinealoma

A

Tumor arise in cells of pineal gland

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17
Q

Tumor Treatments

A
  • Neurosurgeon removes as much tumor as possible
  • Remaining cells are targeted by radiation
    • Special type of radiation therapy called stereotactic radio surgery
  • Some brain tumors respond to chemotherapy
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18
Q

Seizure

A

Period of sudden, excessive activity of neurons in the brain

  • If neurons in the motor system are involved, a seizure can cause a convulsion
  • Single seizure or many may occur during a lifetime
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19
Q

Convulsion

A

Violent sequence of uncontrollable muscular movements caused by a seizure

  • Most don’t have convulsions
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20
Q

Seizure Disorders

A

Condition that has many causes

- preferred term for epilepsy

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21
Q

Partial Seizures

A

Have definite focus, or source of irritation
- Remain localized

  • Simple partial seizure
  • Complex partial sezure
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22
Q

Focus

A

Either a:

- scarred region cáusales by an old injury
- developmental abnormality like malformed blood vessel
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23
Q

Simple Partial Seizures

A

Can cause changes in consciousness

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24
Q

Complex Partial Seizures

A

Lead to loss of consciousness

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25
Q

Generalized seizures

A

Widespread, involving most of the brain (grow from focus but origin not discovered)

- Grand mal seizure
- Absence seizure
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26
Q

Grand mal seizure

A

Most severe form of seizure

* person experiences aura before seizures
- Tonic and clonic phases
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27
Q

Tonic phases

A

First phase of grand mal seizure, in which all patient’s skeletal muscles are contracted

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28
Q

Clonic phases

A

Phase of grand mal seizures in which patient shows rhythmic jerking movements
- intense activity of ANS manifests itself in sweating and salivation

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29
Q

Absence Seizures

A

In children cause them to be unresponsive

- characterized by periods of inattention, which aren’t subsequently remembered
- aka petit mal
- can occur up to several hundred times a day
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30
Q

Aura

A

Sensation that precedes a seizure

- exact nature depends on location of seizure focus

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31
Q

Partial seizures

A

Include sensory changes, motor activity, or both

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32
Q

Status Epilepticus

A

Condition in which a patient undergoes a series of seizures without regaining consciousness
- Damage caused by excessive release of Glu during seizure

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33
Q

Seizure Disorders

A

Associated with withdrawal from chronic alcohol, barbiturate, and benzodiazepines

  • Most common cause: scarring caused by injury, stroke, developmental abnormality, or effects of growing tumor
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34
Q

Seizure Treatment

A

Anticonvulsant drugs
- Increase the effectiveness of inhibitory synapses
Brain surgery
- Usually seizure are eliminated or greatly reduced in frequency
Vagus nerve stimulation

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35
Q

Hemorrhagic Strokes

A

Cerebrovascular accident caused by rupture of cerebral blood vessel

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36
Q

Ischemic strokes

A

Cerebrovascular accident caused by occlusion of blood vessel and interruption of blood supply to region of brain

  • Thrombus
  • Embolus
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37
Q

Thrombus

A

Blood clot in blood vessels

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38
Q

Embolus

A

Piece of material that breaks off and is carried through the bloodstream until it reached an artery too small to pass through

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39
Q

Immediate cause of neuron death

A

Excessive amounts of glutamate

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40
Q

Cerebrovascular Accidents: Treatments

A
  • Medication to reduce blood pressure
  • Brain surgery
  • Dissolve or physically remove the blood clot
  • Anticoagulant drugs
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41
Q

Clot- dissolving drug

A

tPA- enzyme that helps dissolve fibrin

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42
Q

Anticoagulant drugs

A

Desmoteplase, can restore blood flow if given up to nine hours after occurrence of a stroke

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43
Q

Cerebrovascular Accidents: Prevention

A
  • Reduce risk factors, such as high BP, smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol
  • Carotid endarterectomy to remove atherosclerotic plaque
  • Placement of a stent in a narrowed carotid artery
44
Q

After Stroke Treatments

A
  • Drugs that reduce swelling and inflammation
  • Physical, speech, and/or OT
  • Exercise and sensory stimulation
    • Constraint-induced movement therapy
45
Q

Traumatic Brain Injury Types

A
  • Open-head injuries occurs when objects fracture the skull and wound the brain
  • Closed-head injuries occur from impacts but do not involve penetration of the brain
  • Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) produced neuro degeneration due to repeated head trauma
    • Abnormal tau protein accumulation
    • Reduced brain volume and enlarged ventricles
46
Q

Traumatic Brain Injury: Primary and Secondary Treatments

A
  • Reduce swelling and intracranial pressure
  • Ensure adequate blood flow to the injured region
  • Address symptoms that develop after injury
    • Drug that inhibits the release of glutamate
    • Similar treatments as with cerebrovascular accidents
47
Q

TBI

A

Increased adenosine and glutamate

- promotes inflammation, which causes further damage

48
Q

Teratogens

A

Any chemical or toxin that results in abnormal development of embryo

49
Q

Fetal alcohol syndrome

A

Birth defect caused by ingestion of alcohol by pregnant women
- includes characteristic facial anomalies and faulty brain development

50
Q

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

Hereditary disorder caused by absence of enzyme that converts Phe —> Tyr
- Accumulation of Phe causes brain damage by interfering with myelin at ion in CNS

51
Q

Tay-Sachs Disease

A

Heritable, fatal, metabolic storage disorder
- Lack of enzymes in lysosome causes accumulation of waste products and swelling of cells in brain against folds of dura mater

52
Q

Down Syndrome

A

Caused by presence of extra chromosome 21

53
Q

Down Syndrome Interventions

A

Drug treatments may help learning and memory impairment

- GABA antagonists
- Fluoxetine
54
Q

Down Syndrome: GABA antagonists

A

Overactivity of GABA system may impair hippocampus synaptic plasticity and associated learning and memory
- increases risk of seizures

55
Q

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies

A

Fatal contagious Brian disease that gives the brain a spongelike appearance
- Cause by simple proteins called prions

56
Q

Prions

A

Protein that can exist in 2 forms that differ in 3D structure

  • Found in membrane of neurons
  • Becomes misfolded and causes normal neurons to misfold, killing them
  • Resistant to levels of heat that denature normal proteins
57
Q

Accumulation of misfolded, abnormal protein may signal […]

A

Accumulation of misfolded, abnormal protein may signal apoptosis

  • Means by which cells can commit suicide
  • Can be triggered externally by chemical signal or internally by disrupted biochemical processes
  • Involves production of caspase
58
Q

Caspase

A

“Killer enzyme” that plays role in apoptosis, or programmed cell death

59
Q

TSE can be […], but most cases are […]

A

TSE can be genetic, but most cases are sporadic

- Both forms can be transmitted to others

60
Q

Sporadic

A

Disease that occurs rare;y and is not obviously by heredity or an infectious agent

61
Q

Parkinson’s Disease Symptoms

A
  • Degeneration of nigrostriatal system
    • DA system: substantia nigra —> basal ganglia
  • Muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, resting tremor, and postural instability
  • Akinesia
  • Lewy bodies
62
Q

Akinesia

A

Difficulty initiating movements associated with decreased activation of supplementary motor area

63
Q

Lewy bodies

A

Abnormal circular structures with dense core consisting of a- synuclein protein
- found in cytoplasm of nigrostriatal neurons

64
Q

a-synuclein protein

A

Found in presynaptic membrane, where it is involved in synaptic plasticity

65
Q

Parkinson’s disease: mutation on chromosome 4

A
  • Produces abnormal a-synuclein

- Produces a toxic gain of function a protein that results in effects that are toxic to the cell

66
Q

Toxic Gain fo Function

A

Cause by dominant mutation

67
Q

Parkinson’s Disease: mutation of a gene located on chromosome 6

A
  • Produces a gene named Parkin
  • Produces a loss of function
  • Defective parking fails to ubiquinate abnormal proteins, and they accumulate in the cell, eventually killing it
68
Q

Parkin

A

Protein that plays trole in ferrying defective or misfolded proteins to proteosomes

69
Q

Loss of Function

A

Recessive mutation

70
Q

Ubiquitin

A

Protein that attaches itself to faulty/ misfolded proteins and targets them for destruction by proteosomes

71
Q

Proteasome

A

Organelle responsible for destroying defective or degraded protein within cell

72
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A
  • Most cases are sporadic
  • May be caused by toxin in the environment, faulty metabolism, or unrecognized infectious disorders
  • Damages only the nigrostriatal system
    • Involves calcium channels
73
Q

Parkinson’s Drug Treatments

A

L-DOPA produces more DA
- Temporary as symptoms eventually worsen
Deprenyl inhibits the activity of the enzyme MAO-B
- Slows the progression and reduces symptoms
- Does not slow degeneration of DA neurons

74
Q

Parkinson’s Surgical Procedures

A
  • Transplantation of fetal tissue
  • Lesioning parts of the brain ti improve symptoms
    • GPi
  • Implanting electrodes that allow patient to electrically stimulate the brain
    • DBS in subthalamic nucleus and GPi
75
Q

Internal Division of Globus Pallidus (GPi)

A

Division of globus pallidus that provides inhibitory input to motor cortex via thalamus

76
Q

Deep Brain Stimulus

A

Surgical procedure that involves implanting electrodes in particular region of brain and attaching device that permits electrical stimulation of that region through electrodes

77
Q

Huntington’s Disease Symptoms

A
  • Inherited disorder that causes degeneration of the basal ganglia
  • Uncontrallable movements, cognitive, and emotional changes, and eventually death
  • Begins in GABAergic medium spiny neurons in putamen
78
Q

Huntington’s Disease Causes

A

Hereditary disorder caused by dominant gene on chromosome 4

- Produces abnormal protein called huntingtin (Htt)
- Produces a toxic gain of function
	- Signals apoptosis
79
Q

Huntingtin (Htt)

A

Protein that may serve to facilitate production transport of brain-derived neurotrophic factor
- accumulates in nucleus

80
Q

Huntington’s Disease Treatments

A

Happ1, an antibody that acts intracellularly
- Targets a portion of the Huntington protein
Injection of small interfering RNAs
-Blocks the transcription of the Htt genes

81
Q

Dementia

A

Loss of cognitive abilities such as memory, perception, verbal ability, and judgement

82
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

Progressive loss of memory and other cognitive function

- Memory deficit most critically involved recent events - Abnormal structures develop: amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
83
Q

Amyloid plaques

A

Extracellular deposite containing dense core of B-amyloid protein surrounded by degenerating axons and dendrites and activated microclima and reactive astrocytes

84
Q

Neurofibrillary tangles

A

Dying neuron containing intracellular accumulations of abnormally phosphorylated tau-proteins filaments that formerly served as cell’s internal skeleton

85
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease Abnormal Structure

A

Abnormal accumulation of long-form AB but little tau protein

- Induces the release of chemicals that destroy cells

86
Q

Tau Protein

A

Protein that normally serves as components of microtubules, which provide the cell’s transport mechanism and cytoskeleton

87
Q

B-Amyloid Protein

A

Protein found in excessive amounts in brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease

88
Q

Amyloid precursor (APP)

A

Protein produced and secreted by cells that serves as precursor for B-amyloid that serves a precursor for B-amyloid protein

89
Q

Secretase

A

Class of enzyme that cut B-amyloid precursor into smaller fragments, including B-amyloid

90
Q

Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease

A
  • Some forms appear to be hereditary
  • Mutation of gene that produces APP located on chromosome 21
  • Mutation of two presenilin genes located on chromosomes 1 and 14
  • Mutation for the gene for apolipoprotein E (ApoE)
91
Q

Presenilin

A

Produced by faulty gene that causes B-amyloid precursor protein to be converted to abnormal short form

92
Q

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE)

A

Glycoprotein that transports cholesterol in blood and plays role in cellular repair
- presence of E4 allele of ApoE gene increases risk of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease

93
Q

Alzheimer’s Risk Factors

A
  • TBI
  • Obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, and diabetes
  • Lower levels of formal education
  • Cognitive activity delays the appearance of Alzheimer’s
94
Q

Treatments of Alzheimer’s Diseases

A
  • AChE inhibitors and NMDA receptor antagonists
    • No effect on process of neural degeneration and don’t prolong survival
  • Noncompetitive NMDA receptor blocker produces slight improvement in symptoms
  • Vaccine that destroys AB by sensitizing the immune system to the protein
    • Cause inflammation
95
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A
  • Characterized by symptoms of anterograde amnesia
  • Caused by environmental factors, usually related to chronic consumption of alcohol
    • Sometimes occurs in people who have been severely malnourished and then received intravenous infusions of glucose
  • Deficiency of thiamine produces brain damage
96
Q

Encephalitis Symptoms

A
  • Infection that invades the entire brain
    • caused by bacteria, virus, or toxic chemicals
  • Symptoms include fever, irritability, and nausea
    • often followed by convulsions, delirium, and signs of brain damage
97
Q

Encephalitis Causes

A
  • Herpes simplex virus
  • Acute anterior poliomyelitis
  • Rabies
  • HIV
98
Q

Herpes simplex virus

A

Attacks the frontal and temporal lobes

- normally lives in trigeminal nerve ganglia

99
Q

Acute anterior poliomyelitis

A

(Polio)

- causes specific damage to motor neurons of the brain and spinal cord

100
Q

Rabies

A

Passed from saliva by a bite wound

- Damage CNS and peripheral organs

101
Q

HIV

A

Causes damage to synapses and death of neurons

102
Q

Meningitis

A
  • Inflammation of meningitis
  • Caused by viruses or bacteria
  • Symptom: include headache, stiff neck, and sometimes convulsion, confusion or loss of consciousness, and death
  • Bacterial meningitis causes brain damage
103
Q

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

A
  • Spasticity, exaggerated stretch reflexes, progressive weakness and muscular atrophy, and paralysis
  • Degenerative disorder that attacks spinal cord and cranial nerve motor neurons
  • 10% heredity: mutation in SOD1 gene as chromosome 21
    • Toxic gain of function
  • 90% sporadic: abnormality in RNA editing
104
Q

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Treatment

A
  • Riluzole: drug that reduces Glu-induced excitotoxicity
105
Q

Multiple Sclerosis Symptoms

A

Autoimmune demyelinating disease

  • increase in intensity and then decrease, followed by another increase after varying periods of time (remitting-relapsing MS)
  • Progressive MS is characterized by slow, continuous increase in symptoms
106
Q

Multiple Sclerosis Causes

A
  • Risk factors include growing up in places far from the equator and being born in late winter or early spring
  • May come from a virus
    • Causes the immune system to attack own myelin
    • Weaken the BBB
    • Attaches itself to myelin
107
Q

Multiple Sclerosis Treatment

A
  • Interferon B, a protein that modulates the responsiveness of the immune system
  • Glatiramer acetate suppresses the activity of immune cells that would otherwise attack the myelin
  • Both are only partially effective treatments for remitting-relapsing form of MS
  • Transplantation of autologous hemapoietic stem cells

Advanced Principles Of Neural Sciences (15 decks)

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