Chapter 12 Flashcards
Going beyond the information given to reach a goal such as a solution, a decision or belief.
Thinking
The type of reasoning that begins with some specific premise which are assumed to be true. Next you judge whether those premises allow a particular conclusion to be drawn based on the principle of logic.
Deductive Reasoning
Assessing information and choosing among two or more alternatives Compared to deductive reasoning ____ is much more ambiguous.
Decision Making
In reasoning and decision making the approach that distinguishes between two types of cognitive processing. Type 1 (fast processing and automatic requires little conscious attention) Type 2 (relatively slow and controlled, requiring focused attention and it is typically more accurate.
Dual Process Theory
According to dual processing theory in reasoning and decision making, ____ processing is relatively fast and automatic. It also requires little conscious attention
Type 1 Processing
According to dual processing theory in reasoning and decision making, _____ processing is relatively slow and controlled. It also requires focused attention, and performance is typically more accurate.
Type 2 Processing
A deductive reasoning task that describes the relationship between conditions. ___ tasks are often presented in an If …then format (also called propositional reasoning task)
Conditional Reasoning Task
A common deductive reasoning task that consist of two statements that one must assume to be true, plus a conclusion. They refer to quantities so they use the words all, none, some and other similar terms.
Syllogism
In deductive reasoning a system for categorizing the four kinds of reasoning used in analyzing statements that are made up of antecendents and consequents.
Propositional Calculus
___ are the statements that are made up of antecendents and consequents.
Propositions
In conditional reasoning tasks the first proposition or statement, ____ is contained in the If part of the sentence.
Antecedents
In conditional Reasoning tasks the proposition that comes second. The ___ is contained in the “then” part of the sentence
Consequent
In conditional reasoning tasks the fallacy (or error) of claiming that the “then” part of the sentence is true. this kind or reason leads to an invalid conclusion
Affirming the Consequent
In conditional reasoning tasks claiming that the then part of the sentence is false . this kind of reasoning lead to a correct conclusion
denying the consequent
A general rule or problem solving strategy that usually produces a correct solution.
Heuristic
When people make reasoning judgments based on prior beliefs and general knowledge rather than on the rules of logic. In general people make errors when the logic of reasoning problem conflicts with their background knowledge.
Belief Bias Effect
The tendency to try to confirm or support a hypothesis rather than trying to disprove it .
Confirmation Bias
We use ___ during depth perception, recognition of facial expressions, and automatic stereotyping
Type 1
We use ____ when we think of exceptions to a general rule, when we realize that we made a stereotyped response and when we acknowledge that our ____ response may be wrong.
Type 2/Type 1
The dual processing theory consist of
Type 1 and type 2
what are two types of deductive Reasoning?
Conditional reasoning tasks and syllogism
Use the words all none or some
Syllogism
In conditional reasoning tasks, claiming that the if … part of the statement is true. This kind of reasoning leads to a correct conclusion
Affirming the Antecendent
In conditional reasoning tasks claiming that the the fallacy (or error) of caliming that the if part of the sentense is false. This kind of reasoning lead to invalid conclusion
Denying the antecendent
cognitive errors can be traced back to a
heuristic
The belief bias effect is an example of what kind of processing
top down
people who score low on intelligence test and low flexible thinking test are likely to demonstrate the ____ ___ __
belief bias effect
What are the three classic decision making heuristics
representativeness heuristics
Availability
anchoring
adjustment
When a sample looks similar in important characteristics to the population from which it was selected
Representative
A general rule in decision making that people use when trying to decide which outcome would be more likely. People who use this heuristic make judgements in terms of the similarities between the sample and the population from which the sample was selected.
Representativeness Heuristic
The assumption that a small sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected. This assumption often leads to incorrect decisions.
Small Sample Fallacy
How often an item occurs in the population.
Base Rate
Paying too little attention to important information about how often an item occurs in the population.
Base Rate Fallacy
A rule stating that the probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than the probability of either of its constituent events.
Conjunction Rule
A decision making error that occurs when people judge the probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event.
Conjunction Fallacy
Random looking outcomes are more probable than orderly looking outcomes
Representative Heuristics
A __ sample is statistically more likely to reflect the true proportions in a population
Large
What are examples of errors when using representative heuristics
Base Rate Fallacy
Sample Size Fallacy
Conjunction Fallacy
People with high SAT Scores tend to commit what fallacy most
Conjunction
Estimating frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something.
Availability Heuristics
A situation in decision making that occurs when someone is trying to decide which of two categories occurs more frequently. If this person recognizes one category and not the other then she or he concludes that the recognized category has the highest frequency.
Recognition Heuristic
A persons belief that two variables are statistically related even though there is no actual evidence for this relationship.
Illusory Correlation
The view that stereotypes and many other components of social psychology can be traced to normal cognitive processes.
Social Cognition Approach
If the problem is based on a judgment about similarities you are dealing with ___ heuristic
the representative Heuristic
If your problem requires to remember examples you are dealing with the ____ heuristic
Availability
What can produce distortion in frequency estimation when dealing with Availability Heuristics
Recency and familiarity
What kind of availability heuristic often leads to an accurate decision ____
Recognition Heuristic
In decision making, beginning with a first approximation, which serves as an anchor and then making adjustments to the anchor, based on additional information. typically people rely too heavily on the anchor and their adjustment are too small.
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
In decision making the first approximation used in the anchoring adjustment heuristic
anchor
typically people rely too heavily on the anchor and their adjustment are too small.
anchoring effect
In decision making the range within which a number is expected to fall a certain percentage of the time.
Confidence interval is in range
when decisions are influenced by 1) the background context of the choice or 2) the way in which a question is worded
Framing Effect
Peoples tendencies to think that possible gains are different from possible losses. when dealing with possible gains (saving lives) people tend to avoid risks. when dealing with possible losses (lives lost) people tend to seek risks.
Prospect Theory
When a persons confidence judgements are higher than they should be , based on actual performance on the task.
Over Confidence
Imagining that a completely accurate crystal ball has determined that a favored hypothesis is actually incorrect. Therefore the decision maker must search for alternative explanations for the outcome.
Crystal ball technique
The tendency 1) to underestimate the amount of time (money) requirered to complete a project 2) to estimate that the task will be relatively easy to complete.
Planing fallacy
People are overconfident that their own view is correct in a confrontational situation.
my side bias
Peoples judgment about events that already happened in the past.
hindsight
The belief that after an event has already happened that the event had been inevitable and was predicted all along.
hindsight bias
method for reducing overconfidence about decisions
Crystal ball technique
overconfidence that we could have predicted a particular outcome at some point in the past
Hindsight Bias
A description of how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help make useful adaptive choices in the real word.
Ecological Rationality
the tendency to choose a default option (standard option) for example in france being an organ donor is the standard unless you opt out so 99% of french are blood donors. in US only 28% because you have to sign up to be a blood donor
Default Heuristic
The tendency to examine as many options as possible when making a decision to make the best possible choice instead of settling for something that is merely satisfactory.
Maximizing decision making style
people who tend to examine as many options as possible rather than settling for something that is satisfactory
Maximizers
People who tend to settle for something that is satisfactory rather than examining numerous options.
Satisficers
the tendency to settle for something that is fastifcatory rather than examining numerous options.
Satisficing decision making style
___ agonize over their decisions which may lead to regret and depressive symptoms
maximizers
