Chapter 11 Flashcards
The processes that a person uses to reach a specific goal for which the solution is not immediately obvious. Either important information is missing and/or it is unclear how to reach the goal. (used when you want to reach a certain
goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious and
obstacles block your path)
Problem Solving
In problem solving the situation at the beginning of the problem
Initial State
In problem solving the restriction that makes it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state.
Obstacles
In problem solving the situation when the problem is solved
Goal State
In problem solving and decision making going beyond the information given to reach a goal such as a solution, a decision or a belief.
Thinking
In problem solving having a well organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and ones own previous experience.
Understanding
Every problem contains 3 components
Initial state, goal state, obstacle
You must ____ the information acquired to reach an appropriate answer
Transform
When people try to solve a problem they may take a ____ ___ approach randomly trying different options until they find a solution
Trial and Error
______Problem solvers plan their attack. They break a problem into component parts and devise a strategy for solving each part. use strategies that are likely to produce a solution relatively quickly
Effective
_____ is used to monitor whether their problem solving strategies seem to be working effectively.
Metacognition
In the ___ step in problem solving one must ___ the Problem
Initial ,understand
____ is important during problem solving because competing thoughts can produce divided ___
Attention
In problem solving the process of translating the elements of a problem into a different format. Choosing an appropriate representation will increase the likelyhood of solving the problem effectively.
Problem Representation
a Grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of the items in a problem.
Matrix
____ capacity is correlated with a persons ability to solve algebra word problems and categorize geometric patterns.
Working Memory
If you have good ____ you can keep the relevant parts of a problem in your mind simultaneusly
Working Memory
Sometimes the most effective way to represent an abstract problem is by using____
Symbols
___ is a perfect way to keep track of items particularly if the problem is complex and if the relevant information is categorical
Matrix
Students who uses ____ to solve a problem are more successful than those who use other problem representations
Matrix
___ is especially suitable when the information is stable rather than changing over time.
Matrix
When given verbal descriptions and a ____ people are much more accurate than people who are given only verbal descriptions
Diagram
Can be useful to represent a large amount of information and let you represent abstract information in a concrete fashion.
Diagram
A figure that uses a treelike structure to show various possible options in a problem. this kind of diagram is especially useful in showing the relationship between categorized items.
Hierarchical Tree Diagram
The most effective kind of diagram is a ___
Graph
Allows us to escape from the boundaries of traditional concrete representation.
Visual Imagery
Good___ provides an advantage when a problem requires you to construct a figure
Visual Imagery
What are the different methods of representing a problem
- Symbols
- Matrix
- Diagrams
- Visual Imagery
The proposal that a person makes use of information in the immediate environment or situation thus knowledge typically depends on the context surrounding the person.
Situated Cognition Approach
The proposal that people often use their own bodies and motor actions in order to express their abstract thoughts and knowledge.
Embodied Cognition Approach
You use both ___ and ___ when you try to solve a problem
Situated cognition and embodied cognition approach
___ suggest that children should have experiences solving problems they are likely to encounter outside a school setting
Situated Cognition Approach
____ consistent with the idea that psychologist should emphasize ecological validity if they want to accurately understand cognitive processes.
Situated Cognition Approach
A study of children’s mathematical skill in selling candy would have greater____ than a study of children’s mathematical skill on a paper pencil standard examination
Ecological Validity
A method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient.
Algorithm
In problem solving a kind of algorithm in which a person tests al the possible answers using a specified system.
Exhaustive Search
A general rule that is usually correct strategy
in which you ignore some alternatives and explore
only those alternatives that seem especially likely to produce a solution
Heuristic
___ will always produce a solution although you may grow old in the process
Algorithm
____ do not guarantee a correct solution
Heuristic
We are more likely to solve everyday problems with ____
Heuristics
what are the three most widely used heuristics
Analogy
means-end heuristic
hill-climbing heuristic
In problem solving the use of a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help solve a new problem
Analogy Approach
When confronting a problem in a statistics course you refer to previous examples in your textbook to help solve the current problem is an example of
Analogy Approach
___ are also prominent when people make creative breakthroughs in areas such as art, politics, science and engineering.
Anaology
The wright brothers designed some of their airplane features by creating a ____ between the wings of a bird and wings of a plane. is an example of ___
Analogy, creative breakthroughs using analogy
In problem Solving a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions but different specific details.
Problem Isomorphs
In problem solving the specific objects and terms used in a question. these elements are often not relevant to the underlying core of the problem.
Surface Features
In problem solving the underlying core of a problem that must be understood in order to solve the problem correctly
Structural Features
People tend to focus on the superficial content the ____ of the problem than on its abstract underlying meaning. (they pay attention to the obvious)
Surface Features
People often fail to see the ___between a problem they have solved and a new problem_____ that has similar structual features
Analogy, Isomorphs
People who have limited problem solving skills and limited metacognitive abilities have a difficult time using
Analogies
An approach to problem solving that consist of two important components 1) dividing the problem into subproblems 2)reducing the diffrences between the intial state and gaol state for each of the subproblems.
Means-End Heuristic
In problem solving a complex problem may be difficult to solve. One strategy is to divide that problem into two or more smaller problems and solve each of these ___ separately
Subproblem
Programming a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perfomr this task.
Computer Simulation
In problem solving a computer program whose basic strategy is means ends analysis. The goal of the ____ is to minic the processes that normal humans use when they tackle these problems.
General Problem Solver (GPS)
The name ____ is appropriate because it requires identifying the “ends” desired and then figuring out the “means” or methods to reach those ends
Means End Heuristic
____ heuristic can be useful when you do not have enough information about your alternatives because you can see only the immediate next step.
Hill Climbing Heuristic
____ heuristic may not produce the best long term solution. Usually encouraged only for short term goals
Hill Climbing Heuristic
In problem solving consistently choosing at each choice point the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward the goa.
Hill Climbing Heuristic
The biggest problem with _____ is that problem solvers must consistently choose the alternative that appears to lead most directly toward the goal and in doing so they may fail to choose an indirect alternative which may have greater long term benefits
Hill Climbing Heuristic
People with expertise use _____ processing effectively when they solve problems they take advantage of factors such as knowledge, memory and strategies
top-down
an individual with ___ demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area.
Expertise
People with ____ in one area typically do not excel in another area
Expertise
___ are more likely to use means end heuristic when problem solving effectively. more likely to emphasize structural features when using the analogy approach
Experts
___ use _____ which means handling two or more items at the same time
Experts/ parallel processing
Handles only one item at a time.
Serial Processing
Applying the same solution used in previous problem even though there is a different easier way to solve the problem If you have a ____ you close your mind prematurely
Mental Set
The belief that a person possesses a certain amount of intelligence and other skills and no amount of effort can improve performance
Fixed Mindset
The belief that people can cultivate intelligence and other skills by challenging themselves to perform better.
Growth Mindset
____ and _____ represent overactive top down processing, problem solvers are so strongly guided by their previous experiences that they fail to consider more effective solutions to their problems
Mental set / Functional Fixedness
What are 3 factors the influence problem solving
Expertise, Mental Sets, and Functional Fixedness
refers to problem solving strategies
Mental Sets
__ refers to how we think about physical objects
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to assign stable (or fixed) functions to an object. As a result people do not think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping solve a problem.
Functional Fixedness
your task is to find a way to attach a candle to the wall of the room so that it burns properly using only the objects on the table (matches, matchbox and tumb tac)to solution requires you to overcome functional fixedness
Dunker Candle problem
If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype and you think about your membership in that group your performance may suffer
Stereotype Threat
The problem solving situation in which a problem initially seems impossible to solve but then an alternative approach suddenly burst into consciousness. The problem solver immediately realizes that the new solution is correct (aha! moment)
Insight Problems
A problem that a person solves gradually by using memory reasoning skills and a routine set of strategies.
non insight problems
what kind of problems benefit from the use of top down processing
non insight problems
Research on metacognition shows that confidence builds gradually for ____ problems in contrast confidence on ___problems is initially low but it suddenly increases when you solve the problem.
non insight/ insight
____ requires you to to use top-down processing while ____ forces you to think outside the box
non insight/insight
Requires finding solutions that are both novel and useful
Creativity
A measure pf creativity that emphasizes the number of different responses made to a test item.
Divergent Production
A measure of creativity requiring the test taker to supply a single best response the researchers assess the quality of that response.
Convergent Production
Creativity requires both ____ think and ___ thinking
divergent and convergent
The motivation to work on a task not because it is enjoyable but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition.
Extrinsic Motivation
The motivation to work on a task for its own sake becasue it is interesting, exciting, or personally challanging
Intrinsic Motivation
The belief that one has the ability to organize and carry out a specific task
Self Efficacy
The ability to keep working on a task even when obstacles are encountered
Perseverance
___ motivation can reduce creativity. while ____ motivation people tend to be more creative when they are working on a task they truly enjoy
Extrinsic Motivation/Intrinsic Motivation
