Chapter 1 Flashcards
accommodation
A process to create a new schema in response to information
anecdotal evidence
Non-systematic observations, including personal experiences. Has the potential to inspire interesting research questions.
applied developmental scholar
Someone specializing in the study of how human development shapes and is shaped by the environment in order to describe, explain, and optimize human development.
applied research
Research designed to examine specific contexts to solve a concrete problem or address policy; it has a direct and practical purpose.
assimilation
A process to expand a schema by adding information.
basic research
Research designed to create fundamental knowledge about the world.
behaviourism
A theoretical perspective on learning that assumes human development occurs as a result of experiences shaping behaviours.
cognitive domain of development
The domain that includes the underlying mental functions, such as thinking, memory, attention, and perception.
cohort effect
The unique impact a given historical era has on people living during that period as compared with people living during a different historical period.
comparative psychology
The scientific study of the behaviour and mental process of nonhuman animals.
cross-sectional design
Research in which different age groups are compared simultaneously.
cross-sequential design
Research in which an experimenter combines the benefits of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs by adding a new group of subjects at progressive intervals.
debriefing
The process of explaining the true purposes and hypotheses of a study.
dependent variable (DV)
The variable measured by the experimenter to observe the effects of the independent variable.
descriptive research
Research methods used to observe, record, and describe behaviour and environments; it is not for making cause-effect explanations. Descriptive methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys
developmental continuity
A characteristic or feature of an individual that stays the same as a person matures through the lifespan.
developmental discontinuity
A characteristic or feature of an individual that changes as a person matures through the lifespan.
developmental instability
A person is developing at a different rate than their peers.
developmental perspective
The approach and basic set of assumptions that guide the scientific study of growth and maturation across the human lifespan.
developmental psychology
The subfield of psychology concerned with studying and understanding human growth and maturation.
developmental stability
A person is developing at the same rate as their peers.
developmental systems theory
A metatheory that draws from and integrates many theories, sources, and research studies related to human development.
developmentalist
A scholar of development who uses their knowledge for research or applied purposes.
ecological systems model
A theoretical approach to the study of human development that emphasizes five environmental systems that influence individual development and assumes that individuals shape the contexts in which they develop.
ego
One of three components of the mind according to Freud; the ego is the part of the mind that deals with reality and mediates between the id instincts and superego morals.
ego identity
The goal of development in Erikson’s psychosocial theory where a sense of oneself as a distinct and continuous entity is achieved.
emerging adulthood
The developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood duringwhich individuals are searching for a sense of identity and maturity.
equilibrium
A state of cognitive balance.
ethological perspective
A theory that assumes that human development is an outcome of individual experiences in the social environment that provide information about which behaviours should be adopted to increase chances of survival.
evolutionary theory
The assumption that specific human traits and behaviours develop over the lifespan and are maintained throughout history because those characteristics are adaptive for survival
exploratory research
An examination into an area in which a researcher wants to develop initial ideas and more focused research questions.
gender
A social construction of expectations that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex.
guided participation
A process in which a more experienced teacher becomes an interactive guide, helping a younger or less experienced person do tasks that they could not complete independently.
id
One of three components of the mind according to Freud; the id represents instincts.
imprinting
Learning at a particular age or stage that is rapid and independent of the consequences of behaviour.
independent variable (IV)
The variable controlled by the experimenter to observe the impact it has on the behaviour of interest.
law of effect
As asserted by E. L. Thorndike, the law that behaviour that is followed by a positive outcome tends to be repeated and behaviour that is followed by a negative outcome tends not to be repeated.
life stage
A period of time with a beginning and an end within which distinct developmental changes occur.
longitudinal design
Research in which different age groups are compared simultaneously.
natural selection
The Darwinian idea that the members of a species who are best suited to their own particular environments will be the ones most likely to survive and produce offspring.
neutral stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not elicit a natural reaction.
For example, in Pavlov’s famous experiment with dogs, the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) initially does not provoke any particular response from the dogs. However, when the bell is repeatedly presented along with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), which naturally elicits salivation (unconditioned response), the dog starts associating the bell with the food. Eventually, the sound of the bell alone can trigger salivation even without the presence of food, demonstrating the acquisition of a conditioned response. At this point, the bell transforms from a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus (CS).
non-normative event
An incident that does not happen to everyone or that happens at a different time than typically experienced by others.
normative event
An incident that matches the sequential and historical events shared by the majority of people.
nurture
The environmental influences that have an impact on development, including social, geographic, and economic factors.
operant conditioning
A learning process through which the likelihood of a specific behaviour is increased or decreased through positive or negative reinforcement.
operational definition
A definition that uses words that are quantitative, in order to allow some form of measurement.
physical domain of development
The domain that includes the biological systems that make up a human being, including the nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems.
psychoanalysis
A treatment method introduced by Sigmund Freud to relieve mental distress by freeing conflicts from the unconscious, bringing them into conscious awareness so they can be resolved.
psychosexual development
.
A Freudian theory in which maturation of personality and sexuality occur as children experience the concentration of libidinal energy from specific body areas
race
A way of categorizing humans that typically focuses on physical traits.
scaffold
The process of assisting a less experienced individual through complex tasks by providing supports, which may be verbal or physical.
schema
An organized pattern of thinking that guides our experience in the world
scientific community
A group of people who sustain the production of scientific knowledge through collective attitudes, rules, and conventions.
socio-economic status (SES)
.
The combination of a person’s education, occupation, and income
socio-emotional domain of development
The domain that includes the social, cultural, and emotional components of development, such as the family, society, schools, and other social institutions.
stage theory
A theory that rests on the assumption that development is discontinuous, with new features of development emerging at each distinct stage.
superego
One of three components of the mind according to Freud; the superego represents the internalized rules for socially appropriate behaviour.
theory
A coherent set of statements that explains an observation or set of observations in relation to one another.
third variable
A confounding variable influencing the correlation between variables, or a variable having an unintended impact on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
unconditioned response (UR)
A reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that a person cannot accomplish independently but that can be done with the assistance of a person with more experience or more advanced cognitive ability.
- The first step in the scientific method is to _______.
a. publish results
b. review literature
c. develop a theory
d. draw conclusions
b. review literature
four tenets of developmental systems theory
- Human development occurs throughout the lifespan from birth through death.
- Human development shapes and is shaped by interactions between people and the contexts in which they live, including family and community.
- Lifespan human development is not static across time, but varies in different historical periods.
- Normal human development is diverse: there is great normal variation in the way people change across the lifespan.
freud oral phase
0-18 months
mouth
weaning from bottle
fixation or regression leads to oral fixations
or passivity “they’ll swallow anything”
freud anal phase
18 months - 3 yrs
anal
fixation or regression leads to highly controlled or destructive
freud phallic
3-6yrs
genitals
overcome oedipus
freud latency
6-puberty
none
dormant issues
freud genital
puberty to young adult
genitals
unresolved leads to lustful based relations instead of respect
Erikson
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
- Stage: Infancy (0-1 year)
- Psychosocial Issue: Trust in caregiver and environment
- Relational Focus: Attachment to primary caregiver
- Central Question: “Can I trust the world?”
- Associated Virtue: Hope
Erikson
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage: Early Childhood (2-3 years)
* Psychosocial Issue: Independence and self-control
* Relational Focus: Developing autonomy while relying on caregiver
* Central Question: “Can I do things by myself?”
* Associated Virtue: Will
erikson
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
- Stage: Preschool Age (4-6 years)
- Psychosocial Issue: Exploration and purpose
- Relational Focus: Social interaction with peers and adults
- Central Question: “Am I good or bad?”
- Associated Virtue: Purpose
erikson
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
- Stage: School Age (7-12 years)
- Psychosocial Issue: Competence and mastery
- Relational Focus: School and peer relationships
- Central Question: “Am I competent or worthless?”
- Associated Virtue: Competence
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
* Stage: Adolescence (13-19 years)
* Psychosocial Issue: Identity formation
* Relational Focus: Peer groups, family, and society
* Central Question: “Who am I and where am I going?”
* Associated Virtue: Fidelity
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
* Stage: Young Adulthood (19-35 years)
* Psychosocial Issue: Intimate relationships
* Relational Focus: Romantic partners, friends, and community
* Central Question: “Shall I share my life with someone else?”
* Associated Virtue: Love
erikson
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Stage: Middle Adulthood (35-55 years)
- Psychosocial Issue: Contribution to society and future generations
- Relational Focus: Work, family, and community involvement
- Central Question: “Will I produce something of real value?”
- Associated Virtue: Care
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair
* Stage: Late Adulthood (55+ years)
* Psychosocial Issue: Reflection on life and mortality
* Relational Focus: Reviewing life’s accomplishments and relationships
* Central Question: “Did I live a meaningful life?”
* Associated Virtue: Wisdom
piaget
1. Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth to 2 years):
* Characteristics:
* Infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.
* They develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
* Key Milestones:
* Reflexive behaviors such as sucking and grasping.
* Beginning intentional actions to achieve goals.
* Development of object permanence.
* Implications:
* Understanding the world through sensory experiences and actions lays the foundation for later cognitive development.
piaget
2. Preoperational Stage
(2 to 7 years):
* Characteristics:
* Children begin to use language and symbols to represent objects and ideas.
* They exhibit egocentrism, where they struggle to see things from others’ perspectives.
* They lack the concept of conservation, understanding that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.
* Key Milestones:
* Rapid development of language and symbolic play.
* Egocentric thinking and animistic beliefs.
* Lack of understanding of conservation.
* Implications:
* Language and symbolic thought enable children to communicate and engage in imaginative play.
* Egocentrism and lack of conservation understanding show limitations in logical reasoning.
- Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 11 years):
* Characteristics:
* Children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
* They become less egocentric and can consider multiple perspectives.
* They start to understand principles of categorization and classification.
* Key Milestones:
* Mastery of conservation tasks.
* Development of logical thinking, though still concrete and tied to real-world examples.
* Understanding of reversibility and decentration.
* Implications:
* Improved logical reasoning abilities enable children to solve concrete problems and understand the principles of classification and categorization.
- Formal Operational Stage
(11 years and beyond):
* Characteristics:
* Adolescents and adults can think abstractly and engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
* They can formulate and test hypotheses systematically.
* They develop metacognition, or the ability to think about their own thinking processes.
* Key Milestones:
* Ability to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical situations.
* Use of deductive reasoning to solve problems.
* Development of metacognitive skills.
* Implications:
* Abstract thinking and reasoning abilities enable individuals to engage in complex problem-solving, planning, and decision-making.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
1. Microsystem
The immediate environment in which an individual interacts directly, such as family, school, and peers.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
2. Mesosystem:
The interconnections between different microsystems, like the relationship between family and school.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
3. Exosystem:
External environments that indirectly affect individuals, such as parents’ workplace or community services.
Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems
4. Macrosystem:
The broader cultural context, including societal norms, values, and laws.
Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems
5. Chronosystem:
The dimension of time, representing changes in individuals and environments over the lifespan.
Vygotsky’s 1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
- The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with guidance and support from a more knowledgeable individual.
- Vygotsky argued that learning occurs most effectively when it is situated within the learner’s ZPD, as this allows for the scaffolding of skills and knowledge by more experienced individuals.
Vygotsky’s
2. Scaffolding:
- Scaffolding involves providing temporary support or guidance to learners within their ZPD to help them achieve tasks or solve problems that they could not do alone.
- This support can take various forms, such as verbal prompts, modeling, breaking tasks into smaller steps, or providing tools and resources.
- As learners gain competence, the scaffolding is gradually removed, allowing them to perform the task independently.
Vygotsky’s
3. Cultural Tools and Mediation:
- Vygotsky emphasized the importance of cultural tools, such as language, symbols, and other forms of social interaction, in shaping cognitive development.
- These cultural tools mediate between individuals and their environment, facilitating learning and problem-solving.
- Language, in particular, plays a central role in Vygotsky’s theory as a tool for thought and communication. He argued that language not only reflects but also shapes cognitive processes.
Vygotsky’s
4. Social Interaction:
- Vygotsky viewed social interaction as a primary mechanism through which cognitive development occurs.
- Interactions with more knowledgeable peers and adults provide opportunities for learning and the internalization of cultural knowledge and skills.
- Collaborative activities, such as cooperative problem-solving, joint play, and group discussions, promote cognitive growth by allowing individuals to share perspectives, negotiate meaning, and co-construct knowledge.
Vygotsky’s
5. Private Speech and Internalization:
- Vygotsky observed that young children often engage in private speech, talking to themselves aloud during tasks or activities.
- He argued that this private speech serves as a tool for self-regulation and problem-solving, allowing children to plan, monitor, and guide their own actions.
- Over time, through social interaction and guided participation, private speech becomes internalized as inner speech, an internalized form of self-directed thought that guides cognitive processes.
