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Biology > Cell Immunity By The Spec > Flashcards

Cell Immunity By The Spec Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What molecules enable an immune system to identify

A

Pathogens
Cells from other organisms of the same species
abnormal body cells
toxins.

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2
Q

Antigen definition

A

The effect of antigen variability on disease and disease prevention.

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3
Q

Phagocytosis definition

A

The subsequent destruction of ingested pathogens by lysozymes.

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4
Q

What to t-lymphocytes do

A

produce an immune response when they are exposed to a specific antigen

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5
Q

When do t cells bind to an antigen

A

if it is present on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell

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6
Q

What is an antigen-presenting cell

A

An antigen-presenting cell is one of the host’s cells that has been invaded by a pathogen and is displaying the antigen on its cell surface membrane

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7
Q

What do antigen-presenting cells do?

A

1) Present antigens from toxins, foreign cells and ingested pathogens
2) Help recruit other cells to produce specific immune response
3) Once the surface receptor of T cell binds to complementary antigen on antigen presenting cell becomes sensitised and divides to produce clone cells

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8
Q

Examples of antigen presenting cells

A

Macrophages and dendritic cells

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9
Q

What do T lymphocytes do

A

Those with receptors specific to an antigen divide by mitosis to increase in number

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10
Q

What do T lymphocytes differentiate into

A

Helper T cells
T killer cells

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11
Q

What do helper t cells do

A

Assist other white blood cells in the immune response
Release cytokines
Increase rate of phagocytosis

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12
Q

What do cytokines stimulate

A

-Maturation of B lymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma cells
-memory B cells
-Activation of cytotoxic T cells, that destroy virus infected cells and tumour cells

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13
Q

What do T killer cells do

A

-Patrol the body looking for antigen-presenting body cells
-Attach to foreign antigens on CSM of infected cells and secrete toxins that kill infected body cells

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14
Q

Example of T killer cells

A

Perforins
Secreted by T killer cells punch a hole in CSM of infected cells allowing toxins to enter

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15
Q

Summarise T killer and helper cells during an immune response

A

1) infected body cell with antigens displayed
2) t helper and killer cells bind to complementary antigens on antigen presenting cell
3) Helper t cells = mitosis, secrete cytokines that stimulate B cells that form plasma and memory cells
3) Killer t cells = divide by mitosis, secrete toxins that kill infected body cell

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16
Q

What are lymphocytes and the two types

A

Type of white blood cell
Smaller than phagocytes with large nucleus
T lymphocytes = t cells
B lymphocytes = b cells

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17
Q

What do immature t lymphocytes do

A

leave the bone marrow to mature in the thymus

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18
Q

What do mature t lymphocytes do

A

have specific cell surface receptors called T cell receptors which have a similar structure to antibodies and are each specific to one antigen

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19
Q

What happens when T lymphocytes encounter their specific antigen

A

Activated when bind to specific antigen presented by our cells
Antigen-presenting cell might have been invaded by a pathogen displaying the antigen on its CSM
The activated T lymphocytes divide by mitosis and undergo helper and cytotoxic t cells roles

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20
Q

What can mature B lymphocytes do

A

Code for antibodies
(Each lymphocyte can make one type of antibody)

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21
Q

Clonal selection

A

IF antigen enters B lymphocyte cells with the correct cell surface receptors they will recognise and bind to it (clonal selection)

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22
Q

What can antibodies from b lymphocytes produce

A

Part of the antibody can form glycoprotein receptors that are specific to a certian type of antigen

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23
Q

What do b lymphocytes turn into when they bind with antigens inside a cell

A

Differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells through clonal expansion (mitosis)

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24
Q

Describe a primary immune response using B lymphocytes

A

1) B lymphocyte has an antibody receptor specific to the receptor on the antigen
2) The selected B cell divides by mitosis forming plasma and memory cells
3) Plasma cells secrete antibodies that are specific with the antigen that has entered the body

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25
Q

Uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

Pregnancy tests, diagnosing HIV, detecting the presence of pathogen, detecting cancer cells

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26
Q

How do you monoclonal antibodies detect wher blood clots are

A

1) Inject a mouse with human fibrin
2) Activates the plasma cells to produce antibodies against fibrin
3) Cells are collected from the mouse spleen
4) Plasma cells are then fused with tumour cells forming hybridomas that produce antifibrin antibodies
5) A radioactive chemical is attached to the antibodies to detect where antibodies are binding to fibrin
6) Gamma ray camera is used to detect where these antibodies have attached (shows where blood clots can be found)

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27
Q

How do you test for HIV using monoclonal antibodies

A

1) HIV antigen attached to test plate
2) Blood sample being tested passes on plate and bind to antigen on HIV antibodies, and wash the plate
3) A monoclonal antibody is passed over the plate, antigen of HIV will bind to monoclonal antibody if present
4) A dye is passed over the plate (chromogen) catalysing a colour change to the enzyme so you can see if the HIV is present

28
Q

Therapeutic uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

1) Treatment of rabies (inject pure antibodies)
2) Prevent organ rejection from transplants
3) Autoimmune therapies (asthma)
4) Treatment of diseases by binding to cell surface receptors on B cells causing death of cells
5) Prevent blood clots

29
Q

What are some defence mechanisms our bodies have against pathogens

A

1) Prevent entry of pathogens (physical and chemical, skin, tears, mucous, saliva)
2) Inflammation (swell region invaded by pathogen)
3) Recognising foreign cells (specific response, targeting pathogens)

30
Q

What molecules identify foreign cells

A

Usually proteins
Part of the phospholipid bilayer such as glycoproteins

31
Q

Where are surface proteins (glycoproteins) found on

A

Pathogen cells
Abnormal body cells
Toxins
Cells from other individuals from same specie (organ transplants)

32
Q

What are antigens purpose

A

Allow cell to cell recognition

33
Q

Two types of antigens

A

Self antigens and non self antigens
Self antigens = dont produce immune response

34
Q

What are phagocytes

A

White blood cells constantly produced in the bone marrow

35
Q

What do phagocytes do

A

Remove dead cells and invasive microorganisms
Carrying out a non-specific immune response

36
Q

What are the two types of phagocytes

A

Neutrophils
macrophages

37
Q

What do neutrophils do - endocytosis

A

1) Chemotaxis = chemicals released by pathogens attract neutrophils to where they are located
2) Neutrophils move towards pathogens with antibodies on their surface
3) Antibodies stimulate neutrophils to attack the pathogens as neutrophils have specific receptor proteins that recognise anybody molecules and attach to them
4) When attached the CSM of the neutrophil extends around the pathogen engulfing it within the phagocyte vacuole

38
Q

What are lyososomes

A

Membrane organelles that contain lysozymes

39
Q

What do lysozymes do

A

Digestive enzymes
Digest unwanted material present in cells

40
Q

What is a phagosome

A

The phagocytic vacuole formed around a pathogen once its been engulfed by a neutrophil

41
Q

What does a lysosome do

A

Fuses with the membrane of the phagosome and releases lysozymes to digest the pathogen

42
Q

What happens to neutrophils after they kill and digest a pathogen

A

Die
Pus is a sign of a neutrophils death

43
Q

Stages of phagocytosis

A

1) Attraction (chemotaxis)
2) Recognition and attachment
3) Endocytosis
4) Bacteria with a phagocytic vacuole
5) fusion of lysosomes and phagocytic vacuole
6)Killing and digestion

44
Q

Where are macrophages

A

Move into organs

45
Q

WHat are macrophages roles

A

1) Initiate an immune response
2) Cut pathogens open to display antigens of pathogens on surface
3) Displayed antigens from antigen-presenting cell can be recognised by lymphocytes

46
Q

What are antibodies

A

Globular glycoproteins called immunoglobulins

47
Q

What strucutre to antibodies have

A

Quaternary structure with two heavy/ long polypeptide chains bonded to disulfide bonds to two light/ short polypeptide chains
Each polypeptide has a constant region and variable region

48
Q

What does the constant region in an antibody do

A

Determins the mechanism used to destroy the antigens

49
Q

What does the variable region do

A

Antibodies are different for each antibody
Antibody attached to antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex§

50
Q

What does the end of the variable region site have

A

Antigen-binding site
THey vary greatly for specificity for binding to antigens

51
Q

What is an epitope

A

Part of the antigen which binds to the antibody

52
Q

What is the hinge region

A

gives flexibility for antigen binding site to be placed at different angles when binding to antigens

53
Q

Where are the light and heavy polypeptide chains

A

Heavy at bottom
Light at top
Y

54
Q

How do antigen-antibody complexes form

A

Antibody collides with a foreign cell that possesses a non-self antigen with a complementary shape, they bind to form an antigen antibody complex

55
Q

What is agglutination and the advantage

A

Antibodies have two antigen-binding sites (top of Y)
Bind more than one so pathogens can clump together
Phagocytes can often phagocytose many pathogens at the same time when clumped together

56
Q

What does the binding of antigens to antibodies do

A

Neutralises the pathogen or acts as a marker to attract phagocytes to engulf and destroy the pathogens

57
Q

What do B lymphocytes form

A

Plasma and memory cells

58
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary immune responses

A

Primary = newly encountered antigen
Secondary = previously encountered

59
Q

Describe what happens in a primary immune response

A

1) Only one of these B cells has an antibody receptor that is specific to the shape of the antigen that has entered the body
2) The selected B cell divides by Mitosis and turn into plasma or memory cells
3) Plasma cells secrete antibodies that specifically combine with the antigen that has entered the body
SLOW PROCESS

60
Q

Describe waht happens after the primary immune response -> the secondary immune response

A

4) The antigen enters the body for some time
5) Memory cells divide to form more plasma cells which secrete antibodies
FAST

61
Q

WHat happens when a T lymphocyte comes into contact with the right pathogen

A

T lymphocyte receptor binds to complementary antigen
T lymphocyte is activated

62
Q

What is attached onto the surphace of a b lyphocyte

A

Antibody

63
Q

How are neutrophils adapted for their roles

A

Multilobed nucleus allows the cell to be flexible
Glycogen granules store glucose which allow the cell to carry out respiration for energy for phagocytosis
Lysosomes contain lysozymes for the cell to digest pathogens

64
Q

Process of phagocytosis

A

Neutrophil engulfs pathogen which is then contained within a phaogosome vacuole
The phagosome fuses with a lysosome inside the cell releasing lysozymes
The lysozymes digest the pathogens and digested parts of the pathogen are displayed on the cell surface membrane of the neutrophil

65
Q

WHy do antigen presentation lead to a specific immune response

A

1) T cells with complementary receptors bind to antigens and are activated
2) B cells with complementary antibodies bind to antigens and are activated
3) Activated T lymphocytes divide by mitosis/ clonal expanasion so more lymphocytes are produced specific to the antigen

66
Q

Histamines are chemicals. How do they assist phagocytes

A

Phagocytes are large cells that are contained within blood vessels
More permeable capillary walls mean that phagocytes can move into tissues directly to the site of cell damage

67
Q

How are b lymphocytes activated

A

Chemicals released by T helper cells bind to complementry receptors on the cell surface
Antibodies on the cell surface of the b cell bind to complementary antigens on the surface of pathogens

Biology (57 decks)

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