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Cardiovascular System Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the cardiovascular system responsible for?

A

Circulating gas, nutrients and wastes

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2
Q

What are the components of the cardiovascular system?

A

Blood
Vessels
Heart

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3
Q

What are the three functions of blood?

A

Transportation
Protection
Regulation

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4
Q

What does the blood transport?

A

Gases
Nutrients
Electrolytes
Metabolic waste
Horomones

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5
Q

How does the blood protect?

A

Immune response
Clots after blood loss

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6
Q

What regulation does the blood do?

A

Body temperature
pH
Circulatory body fluid volume

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7
Q

What are the characteristics of blood?

A

A liquid connective tissue
A sticky viscous opaque fluid
55% plasma
1% buddy coat
44% solids (RBC)

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8
Q

What does the colour of blood indicate?

A

Scarlet red: high oxygen
Dark red: low oxygen

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9
Q

What are the characteristics of plasma?

A

Straw coloured sticky fluid
90% water
10% soluble components

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10
Q

What are the soluble components present in plasma?

A

Nutrients
Gases
Electrolytes
Waste

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11
Q

What is the name for the production of blood cells?

A

Haematopoiesis

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12
Q

Where does haematopoiesis happen?

A

Haematopoietic stem cells in three bone marrow.
Produces cells enter the blood through the blood sinusoids.

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13
Q

What does leucopoiesis produce?

A

Production of white blood cells/ Leucocytes

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14
Q

What does erythropoiesis produce?

A

Production of red blood cells/ erythrocytes.

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15
Q

What does thrombopoiesis produce?

A

Production of platelets.

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16
Q

What is the difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes?

A

Granulocytes= obvious granules under a light microscope
Agranulocytes= no obvious granules under a light microscope

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17
Q

What are the three types of granulocytes?

A

Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils

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18
Q

What do neutrophils fight against?

A

Bacterial infection

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19
Q

What do eosinophils fight against?

A

Parasitic infection

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20
Q

What do basophils fight against?

A

Allergic reaction

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21
Q

What are the three types of agranulocytes?

A

Monocytes
Thrombocytes
Lymphocytes

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22
Q

What do monocytes fight against?

A

Bacterial infection

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23
Q

What do thrombocytes fight against?

A

Blood loss
(They clot the blood)

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24
Q

What do lymphocytes fight against?

A

Infected cells

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25
Q

What are the three types of low WBC counts?

A

Leukopenia (low WBC)
Neutropenia(low neutrophils)
Thrombocytopenia (low platelets)

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26
Q

What is the risk when there is leucopenia?

A

Risk of infection

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27
Q

What is the risk when there is neutropenia?

A

Risk of bacterial infection

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28
Q

What is the risk when there is thrombocytopenia?

A

Risk of blood loss

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29
Q

What could happen with a high WBC count?

A

Neutrophilia (high neutrophils)
Leucocytosis (high WBC)
Eosinophilia (high eosinophils)
Lymphocytosis (high lymphocytes)
Monocytosis (high monocytes)

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30
Q

What is neutrophilia a sign of?

A

Sign of bacterial infection

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31
Q

What is leucocytosis a sign of?

A

Sign of infection

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32
Q

What is eosinophilia a sign of?

A

Sign of parasitic infection

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33
Q

What is lymphocytosis a sign of?

A

Sign of viral infection

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34
Q

What is monocytosis a sign of?

A

Sign of bacterial infection in tissue

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35
Q

Why is the biconcous shape of RBC advantageous?

A

No nucleus and organelles
Large surrogate area for exchange

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36
Q

What are the steps in erythropoiesis?

A

Pluripotent haematopoietic stem cell —> proerythroblast—> erythroblast—> Recticulocyte (from bone marrow to the blood) —> erthyrocyte

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37
Q

What are the steps in the regulation of erythropoiesis?

A

Low oxygen—> kidney becomes hypoxic—> triggers EPO release—> trigger RBC production in bone marrow—> high oxygen—> Block EPO release

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38
Q

What does EPO stand for?

A

Erythropoietin

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39
Q

What is the life cycle of RBC?

A

Cannot grow, divide or replicate.
Gets older and more fragile and degenerate.
Trapped in spleen for RBC breakdown.

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40
Q

What do all the components turn into in RBC breakdown?

A

Iron- recycled and stored
Heme- degraded to bilirubin and excreted in feecces.
Globin- metabolised into amino acids and recycled

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41
Q

What is anaemia a sign of?

A

Problem and risk
No Fe2+ in the blood therefore there is low oxygen supply

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42
Q

What can blood loss lead to?

A

Anaemia

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43
Q

What are the four types of RBC deficiency?

A

Iron deficiency
Renal (lack of EPO)
Pernicious (destroy B12=RBC cannot divide)
Aplastic (injury to red bone marrow)

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44
Q

What are some problems for the RBC that are caused by genetics?

A

Thalassemia
Sickle cell anemia

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45
Q

What is thalassemia?

A

Globin chain in Hb is absent or malfunctioning

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46
Q

What is sickle cell anaemia?

A

Mutation to Hb
Crescent shape
One acid amino is wrong

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47
Q

What is polycythaemia?

A

Too many red blood cells in the blood.

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48
Q

What is haemostasis?

A

Physiological process to stop bleeding

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49
Q

What are the three steps in haemostasis?

A
  1. Vascular spasm
  2. Playlet activation
  3. Coagulation
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50
Q

What happens during vascular spasm?

A

Smooth muscle contraction
Triggering clotting chemicals needed
Directed to the site of injury
Responding to pain stimulation

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51
Q

What happens during platelet activation?

A

Exposed collagen is projected in injury site
Platelets stick to exposed collagen
Stress platelets expand to block the bleeding
Platelets stimulate ADP, thromboxane A2 and serotonin

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52
Q

What happens during coagulation?

A

Clotting factors in liver, vitamin K activate- biosynthesis clotting factors

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53
Q

What happens during clot retraction?

A

The actin and myosin in platelets contract and pull on fibrin strands

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54
Q

What are platelet derived factors (PDGF)?

A

Stimulate smooth muscle and fibrin division

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55
Q

What are vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF)?

A

Rebuild endothelial lining by multiplying endothelial cells.

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56
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

Blood clotting in arteries, veins or capillaries

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57
Q

What is embolism?

A

Blood clot moving in the blood vessel and obstructing blood flow.

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58
Q

What are the two bleeding disorders?

A

Liver dysfunction
Haemophilia

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59
Q

What is haemophilia hereditary?

A

Prolonged bleeding in joint cavaties

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60
Q

What are the three types of circulation?

A

Pulmonary
Coronary
Systemic

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61
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

Starting from heart to lungs to heart

62
Q

What is coronary circulation?

A

Blood circulating around the heart

63
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

Blood circulating around the body

64
Q

In what direction does the artery take the blood?

A

Away from the heart

65
Q

In what direction does the vein take the blood?

A

Towards the heart

66
Q

What pressure can the arteries take?

A

Higher
~90mmHg

67
Q

What pressure can the vein take?

A

Lower
~8-10mmHg

68
Q

What is the structure of the artery?

A

Tunica externa
Tunica media
Tunica interna
Lumen

69
Q

What is the structure of the vein?

A

Externa
Interna
Lumen

70
Q

What does the lumen do?

A

Carries the blood

71
Q

What are the stages the blood has to flow through to go from artery to vein?

A

Artery
Arterioles
Pre-capillary
Capillaries
Venule
Vein

72
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A

Continuous
Fenestrated
Sinusoids

73
Q

What are continuous capillaries?

A

Endothelial cells in the smooth and skeletal muscle packed very tightly for restricted access

74
Q

What are fenestrated capillaries?

A

Endothelial cells that allow for movement of molecules. Have higher permeability to larger bio-molecules

75
Q

What are sinusoid capillaries?

A

Endothelial cells which are loosely packed to allow exchange

76
Q

What is the architecture of the capillaries?

A

Capillaries are lined with endothelial cells for smooth flow and exchange of O2 and CO2.
Bundles of smooth muscle spread out at the pre-capillary which provides elasticity to the capillary system.

77
Q

What are the layers of the heart?

A

Pericardium
Pericardial cavity
Myocardium
Endocardium

78
Q

What is the function of pericardium?

A

Provides elasticity and protects

79
Q

What is the function of the pericardium cavity?

A

Filled with shock absorbing fluid

80
Q

What is the function of the myocardium?

A

Contracts and relax.
Thicker on left side as it needs more pressure to pump the blood around the body.

81
Q

What is the flow of blood in the left side of the heart? (Structures)

A

Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid/ Mitral valve (atrio-ventricle valve)
Left ventricle
Aortic/ semi-lunar valve
Aorta

82
Q

What is the flow of blood in the right side of the heart? (Structure)

A

Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary artery

83
Q

What is the venous return?

A

Flow of blood back to the heart’s right atrium

84
Q

What are the three types of venous return?

A

Calf/skeletal muscle pump
Pulsate arteries adjacent to vein
Respiratory (thoracic) pump

85
Q

How does the capillary control perfusion when there is high O2?

A

Stimulate endothelial cells to release endothelin
Platelets secretions and prostoglandins
Vasoconstriction of precapillary sphincters

86
Q

What does the capillary do to control perfusion when there is low O2?

A

Stimulate endothelial cells to release NO
Vasodilation of precapillary

87
Q

What happens when there is mid-late diastole?

A

Atria goes from diastole to systole
Ventricle is in diastole
A trio-ventricle valves are open
Aortic valves are closed

88
Q

What happens during ventricular systole?

A

Atria is diastole
Ventricle is in systole
Atrioventricular valves are closed
Aortic valves are open

89
Q

What happens during early diastole?

A

Atria is in diastole
Ventricle is in diastole
Atrioventricular valves are open
Aortic valves are closed

90
Q

What does systole mean?

A

Heart contraction

91
Q

What does diastole mean?

A

Heart relaxation

92
Q

What are the key properties of cardiac muscle?

A

Auto-rhythmicity
Excitability
Conductivity
Contractibility

93
Q

What is auto-rhythmicity?

A

Ability to initiate heartbeat, consistent and continuous at a regular pace without any external stimuli

94
Q

What is excitability?

A

Ability to respond to stimuli of adequate strength and duration.
Ability to generate and process action potential

95
Q

What is conductivity?

A

Ability to conduct and transmit impulse through the cardiac tissue.

96
Q

What is contractibility?

A

Ability to contract in response to stimuli

97
Q

What are the steps in excitation-contraction coupling in contractile myocytes?

A
  1. AP from adjacent cell excites myocites membrane depolarisation in T-tubules
  2. Calcium enters the cells via voltage gated channels
  3. Calcium binds to Ryondine Receptor (RYR) and induce calcium release from SR
  4. Calcium binds to troponin and triggers acting-myosin complex contraction
  5. Calcium unbinds from troponin and pumped back into SR
  6. Calcium unbinding cause relaxation and excess Ca2+ exchanged with Na+
  7. Na+ gradient is maintained by sodium-potassium ATPase pump
98
Q

What is a sinus rhythm?

A

A wave of depolarisation that begins on the SA node and spread over the heart.

99
Q

What does the P in an ECG represent?

A

Atriole contraction

100
Q

What does QRS represent in an ECG?

A

Ventricle depolarisation

101
Q

What does the T represent in an ECG?

A

Ventricle repolarisation

102
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

Pressure generated from the ventricle exerted on the walls of the blood vessels (arterial).

103
Q

What is the systemic blood pressure?

A

120/80mmHg

104
Q

What is the pulmonary blood pressure?

A

25/8mmHg

105
Q

What is the venous blood pressure?

A

6-8mmHg

106
Q

What are the factors that make up blood pressure?

A

BP= Cardiac out put x Peripheral resistance

107
Q

What are the factors of cardiac output?

A

Heart rate x stroke volume

108
Q

What are the three main types of regulation of blood pressure control?

A

Auto regulation
Neural
Hormonal

109
Q

What is auto regulation of blood pressure control?

A

Changes in blood flow detected by the local receptors during micro perfusion.

110
Q

What is neural regulation of blood pressure control?

A

Short-term regulation of the blood pressure, especially in responses to the transient changes in arterial pressure, via baroflex mechanisms.

111
Q

Where are the baroreceptors and what do they do in neural regulation of blood pressure?

A

They are in the aortic arch carotid sinus.
These send signals via glossopheraryngal nerves to the brain stem.

112
Q

What happens with neural regulation when there is low blood pressure?

A

Signalled by baroreceptors
Reduces firing rate
Signals the cardiovascular centre
Sympathetic cardiac activity
Release adrenaline
Increase heart contraction
Suppress vagal activity
Increase heart rate
Vasoconstriction

113
Q

What is hormonal regulation of blood pressure control?

A

Long term regulation of blood pressure

114
Q

What does RAAS stand for?

A

Renin-angiotensin-aldersterone system

115
Q

What does ACE stand for?

A

Angionotensin converting enzyme

116
Q

What happens during RAAS when there is low blood pressure?

A

Liver produces angiotensinogen which combines with the renin made from the kidney to make angiotensin. This combines with ACE that was produced by the lungs to make angiotensin II.
In the blood there is also aldosterone made from the adrenal cortex.

117
Q

What happens during RAAS when there is high blood pressure?

A

Liver produces angiotensinogen, however the kidney does not produce renin.
Na+ is secreted out of the kidney
Vasodilation decreases
Peripheral decreases

118
Q

What happens when antidiuretic hormone is released during hormonal regulation of blood pressure control?

A

Hyperolemia: increase in tissue fluid osmolarity trigger ADH release
ADH signals kidney to reabsorb more water

119
Q

What produces Atrial Natriuretic Hormone and what does this promote and suppress?

A

High blood volume and extreme stretching of the cardiac cells trigger ANH.
Promotes loss of sodium and water from the kidneys.
Suppresses renin, aldosterone and ADH production and release.

120
Q

What are the effects of hypotension?

A

Light headed ness or dizziness
Feeling sick
Blurred vision
General.y feeling weak
Confusion
Fainting

121
Q

What are the effects of hypertension?

A

Severe headaches
Nosebleeds
Fatigue/confusion
Vision problems
Chest pain
Difficulty breathing
Irregular heartbeat

122
Q

What are the general functions of RBCs, the five types of leukocytes and platelets?

A

RBCs transport O2 and CO2
Neutrophils phagocytise bacteria
Eosinophils kill parasitic worms
Basophils release histamine and contain heparin
Lymphocytes initiate the immune response
Monocytes phagocytose substances, and develop into macrophages in tissues
Platelets function in blood clotting

123
Q

How does EPO regulate erythropoiesis?

A

Erythropoietin (EPO)is released by the kidneys in response to low blood PO2. EPO stimulates pro-erythroblasts to transform into erythroblastosis, which then function as ribosome-producing factories

124
Q

How does the leukopoiesis process differ for granulocytes and agranulocytes?

A

Granulocytes are produced by the common myeloid progenitor pathway. They develop in five stages within the bone marrow. The agranulocytes are produced by both pathways; the lymphocytes by the common lymphoid progenitor pathway, and the monocytes by the common myeloid progenitor pathway. Both monocytes and lymphocytes begin development in the bone marrow, but travel to the lymphoid tissue to mature.

125
Q

How does the development of anti-Rh antibodies and anti-A and anti-B antibodies differ?

A

A persons plasma contains antibodies towards the agglutinogens that aren’t present on their own RBCs. For example, a person with Group A blood type will have anti-B antibodies in their plasma. Anti-Rh antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood.

126
Q

What is the structure of the haemoglobin?

A

haem- contains 4 irons which each bond to o2.
globin-4 polypepetid (2 alpha and 2 beta)

127
Q

Why do males have a higher blood count?

A

testosterone increases EPO release which allows for the production of more RBCs

128
Q

How is iron bound, stored and transported after use in RBCs?

A

bound with a protein
stored as ferittin and haemosiderin
transported by binding with transferittin

129
Q

What is haem degraded to after use in RBCs?

A

biliruben which is secreted in urine
stercoblin which is secreted in bile

130
Q

What is globin degraded to after use in RBCs?

A

amino acids

131
Q

What are the electrical nodes in the heart that control the ‘pump’ of the heart? Pace makers

A

Atria-ventricla
Sino-atrial

132
Q

What can cause hypovolaemia?

A

heamorage
diarrheoa
dehydration
burns
diuretics

133
Q

What can cause structural dysfunctions in hypotension?

A

valves disease
ischemia
myopathy
pulmonary hypertension
pericardial disease

134
Q

What can cause arrythmias?

A

sinus bradycardia
AV nodal block
ventricular fibrillation

135
Q

What can cause systemic vasodillation?

A

sepsis
autonomic dysfuntion
anaphylaxis
neurogenic

136
Q

What can cause obstruction?

A

pulmonary embolism

137
Q

What can cause Sodium homeostasis?

A

renal disease
nephropathy
reduced nephron number
GFR

138
Q

What can cause hormonal imbalance?

A

renin
angiotensin ii
aldosterone
erythropoietin
adrenaline/noradrenaline

139
Q

what can cause systemic vasoconstriction?

A

stress
autonomic dysfunction

140
Q

what can cause structural dysfunction in hypertension?

A

obesity
endothelial dysfunction
altered cell membrane
venous constriction

141
Q

what is the function of albumin?

A

exerts osmotic pressure to maintain water balance

142
Q

what are the functions of alpha and beta globulins?

A

transports proteins that bind to lipids, ions and fat-soluble vitamins

143
Q

what are the functios of clotting proteins?

A

include fibrinogen and prothrombin

144
Q

what are the functions of gamma globulins?

A

antibodies released by plasma cells during an immune response

145
Q

how is iron storred for reuse?

A

ferritin

146
Q

what does the metabolisation of heme result in?

A

the production of carbon monoxide

147
Q

are platelets larger than RBCs?

A

yes

148
Q

when activated what shape do platelets turn into?

A

star-shaped

149
Q

do platelets contain mitocondria?

A

yes

150
Q

do platelets contain a nucleus?

A

yes

151
Q

what is the saying to remeber the order of leukocytes?

A

never let monkeys eat bananas
(neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophinls, basophils)

152
Q

what are the stages in the production of platelets?

A

myeloid stem cells
megakaryoblast
megakaryocyte
platelets

PMP 101 (28 decks)

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