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1
Q

What is cartilage surrounded by?

A

A membrane called the pericondrium

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2
Q

What causes the strength in cartilage?

A

Collagen fibres

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3
Q

What causes the resilience in cartilage?

A

Chondroitin sulfate

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4
Q

What is cartilage nourished by?

A

Diffusion of gases and nutrients

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5
Q

Are lymphatic vessels or blood vessels present in cartilage?

A

No

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6
Q

What does cartilage consist of?

A
  • Cells
  • Fibers
  • Matrix
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7
Q

What type of cells are present in cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes

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8
Q

Where do cells occur in cartilage?

A

Within spaces in the matrix called lacunae

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9
Q

What do fibres consist of?

A

A dense network of collagen and/or elastin fibres

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10
Q

What is the matrix in cartilage composed of?

A
  • Proteoglycans

- Ground substance

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11
Q

What is it called when a structure has no blood vessels?

A

Avascular

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12
Q

Where is the only place where blood vessels/nerves are present in cartilage?

A

Perichondrium

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13
Q

What is the function of mesenchymal cells in bone?

A

Differentiate into chondroblasts

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14
Q

What is the function of chondroblasts?

A

Synthesise ground & substance & matrix (cartilage)

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15
Q

What are chondrocytes embedded in?

A

In matrix

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16
Q

What type of cells are chondrocytes

A

Mature cells

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17
Q

What is the term for the formation of cartilage?

A

Chondrification

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18
Q

NB!! What are the 5 steps in the formation of cartilage?

A
  1. Mesenchymal cells differentiate chondroblast
  2. Chondroblasts proliferate & synthesise ground substance & fibrous extracellular matrix
  3. Chondroblasts separate into spaces (lacunae)
  4. More divisions form clusters (isogenous grps)
  5. These chondrocytes are embedded in extracellular matrix
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19
Q

What is the term for when cartilage is replaced by bone?

A

Ossification

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20
Q

In embryogenesis where is the skeletal system derived from?

A

Mesoderm germ layer

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21
Q

In embryogenesis what is most of the skeleton comprised of?

A

Cartilage

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22
Q

Name the two methods of growth in cartilage

A
  • Appositional

- Interstitial

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23
Q

What is appositional growth?

A

An increase in girth or width

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24
Q

What is an interstitial growth?

A

An increase in length

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25
Q

What happens during appositional growth?

A

Chondroblasts deposit collagen/matrix on surface of pre-existing cartilage

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26
Q

What is interstitial growth specific for?

A

For endochondral bone formation

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27
Q

What happens during interstitial growth?

A

Chondrocytes divide and secrete matrix from within their lacunae

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28
Q

Where do chondrocytes occupy?

A

Hallow space

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29
Q

What are chondrocytes surrounded by?

A

By its own secreted matrix

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30
Q

What do chondrocytes synthesise?

A
  • Ground substance

- Fibrous elements

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31
Q

What does elastic cartilage contain?

A

Many elastic fibres

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32
Q

Where is elastic cartilage present?

A

In ear and epiglottis

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33
Q

What can elastic cartilage tolerate?

A

Repeated bending

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34
Q

What is the most abundant cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage

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35
Q

What is the appearance of hyaline cartilage?

A

Glassy

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36
Q

What does hyaline cartilage provide?

A

Support through flexibility

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37
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage present (x 5)?

A
  • Articular cartilages
  • Costal cartilage
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Nose
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38
Q

Where is fibrocartilage present (x 2)?

A
  • Intervertebral discs

- Pubic symphysis

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39
Q

What can fibrocartilage resist?

A

Strong compression and strong tension

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40
Q

What is fibrocartilage in comparison to other cartilages?

A

An intermediate between hyaline and elastic cartilage

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41
Q

Does cartilage have many repair capabilities?

A

No, limited

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42
Q

Damage of elastic and fibrocartilage

A

Show less damage or ageing

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43
Q

Damage of hyaline cartilage

A

Easily damaged & has limited repair

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44
Q

Damage of articular cartilage

A

Do not repair

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45
Q

What can’t chondrocytes bound in hallow spaces do?

A

They cannot migrate to damaged areas to make new matrix

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46
Q

What is damaged cartilage replaced by?

A

By fibrocartilage scar tissue

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47
Q

Are they any issues of rejection in cartilage transplantation?

A

No

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48
Q

Why are there/ aren’t there any issues of rejection in cartilage transplantation?

A

no issues of rejection because:

  • Antigenic power of cartilage is low
  • Immune system cells poorly diffuse cartilage
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49
Q

Give five diseases of cartilage

A
  • Arthritis
  • Dwarfism
  • Herniated disk
  • Tumors
  • Scurvy
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50
Q

What happens in arthritis?

A

Degeneration of cartilage joints (articular cartilage)

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51
Q

What happens in dwarfism?

A

Reduced proliferation of chondrocytes

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52
Q

What happens in a herniated disk?

A

Ruptures disk cartilage ring, pushing into spine

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53
Q

What happens in tumours?

A

Cartilage cells give rise to benign (chondroma) tumours.

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54
Q

Do malignant tumours usually occur in cartilage?

A

No, in bone

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55
Q

What causes scurvy?

A

Lack of vitamin c required to process collagen

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56
Q

What does scurvy cause?

A

Defective cartilage and bone

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57
Q

Why is vitamin c required by cartilage?

A

To process collagen

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58
Q

How many bones are in adults?

A

206

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59
Q

How many bones are in infants?

A

About 300

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60
Q

Give six functions of bones

A
  1. Support, Movement and Protection
  2. Hematopoiesis
  3. Mineral storage
  4. Acid-base balance
  5. Detoxification
  6. Sound transduction
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61
Q

What occurs in hematopoiesis?

A

Red blood cells produced in red bone marrow

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62
Q

What occurs in mineral storage?

A

A calcium reservoir maintains calcium and phosphorus equilibrium

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63
Q

What occurs in an acid-base balance?

A

Blood is buffered against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts

64
Q

What does detoxification do?

A

Stores heavy metals and foreign elements

65
Q

What aspect of hearing is sound transduction involved in?

A

Mechanical

66
Q

Give a physical description of cortical bones

A

Dense protective shell

67
Q

Give a physical description of cancellous bones

A

Rigid lattice designed for strength

68
Q

What are interstices in cancellous bone filled with?

69
Q

What is the location of cortical bone?

A

Around all bones, beneath periosteum, primarily in the shafts of long bones

70
Q

Give location for cancellous bone?

A

In vertebrae, flat bones (e.g. pelvis) and the ends of long bones

71
Q

What percentage of skeletal mass does cortical mass make up?

72
Q

What percentage of skeletal mass does cancellous mass make up?

73
Q

What is the bone matrix composed of?

A
  • 20% Organic materials
  • 70% Inorganic materials salts
  • 10% Water
74
Q

What is the name of the organic material in the bone matrix and where is it from?

A

Osteoid from osteoblasts

75
Q

What is osteoid comprised of?

A
  • Type I Collagen fibers (90% of organic osteoid part)
  • Glycosaaminoglycans
  • Ground substance proteoglycans
76
Q

What are the inorganic materials in the bone matrix composed of?

A

Mainly Calcium & Phosphate (in form of hydroxyapatite crystals)

77
Q

What are the four types of bone cells?

A
  1. Osteoprogenitor cells
  2. Osteoblasts
  3. Osteocytes
  4. Osteoclasts
78
Q

What type of cells are Osteoprogenitor cells?

A

Bone stem cells

79
Q

What is the function of Osteoprogenitor cells?

A

Generate osteoblasts and osteocytes

80
Q

What type of cells are osteoblasts?

A

Immature bone forming cells

81
Q

Where are osteoblasts derived from?

A

Mesenchymal stem cells

82
Q

What is the most abundant cell found in bone?

A

Osteocytes

83
Q

What is an osteocyte?

A

An inactive osteoblast

84
Q

What type of cells are osteoclasts?

A

Phagocytic cells

85
Q

What is the function of osteoclasts?

A

Erode bone, bone resorption and remodelling.

86
Q

What do osteoblasts contain?

A

Contain lots of rough ER for collagen synthesis

87
Q

What do osteoclasts secrete?

A

Secrete organic acids and lysosomal proteolytic enzymes to erode bone

88
Q

NB! What are the six types of fixed macrophages?

A
  1. Dust/Alveolar type (lungs)
  2. Histiocytes (connective tissue)
  3. Kupffer cells (liver)
  4. Microglial cells (nervous)
  5. Osteoclasts (bone)
  6. Sinusoidal lining cells (spleen)
89
Q

What can osteoclasts clear from the bone?

A

Dead osteocytes

90
Q

What are osteoclast capable of with bone collagen

A

Capable of phagocytosis of bone collagen

91
Q

What are bones?

A

Solid network of living cells

92
Q

What are the four steps in the formation of bone?

A
  1. Osteoblasts synthesise & secrete collagen & organic matrix (osteoid)
  2. Osteoid then becomes calcified (i.e. calcium deposition)
  3. Osteoblasts secrete vesicles of alkaline phosphatase (AP)
  4. AP causes matrix mineralisation (gives rigidity & strength)
93
Q

Mineral issues in rickets and chronic renal failure

A

Inadequate calcium and phosphate ions in osteiod tissue and mineralisation is slow

94
Q

Name two types of mature bone

A
  • Compact

- Spongy

95
Q

How is compact bone arranged?

A

In Haversian systems

96
Q

Where is compact bone found?

A

Found as dense layer on outside of bones

97
Q

Where is spongy bone found?

A

In interior of bone

98
Q

Give the appearance of spongy bone

A

Trabecular appearance

99
Q

Immature bone is also known as ….

100
Q

What has more cells and ground substance, mature or immature bone?

101
Q

What does immature bone stain more intensely with and why?

A

Hematoxylin as it’s not mineralized

102
Q

What is the name for the arrangement of immature bone?

A

Nonlamellar

103
Q

Describe the arrangement of immature bone

A

Irregularly arranged collagenous fibers in proteoglycan matrix

104
Q

Where is immature bone initially deposited?

A

In skeleton of fetal life or following fracture

105
Q

Give two types of bone

A
  • Long

- Flat

106
Q

How does growth occur in long bones

A

By endochondral ossification

107
Q

Give two examples of long bones

A
  • Tibia

- Metacarpals

108
Q

How does growth occur in flat bone?

A

By intramembranous ossification

109
Q

Give the four parts of long bones

A
  • Diaphysis
  • Epiphysis
  • Metaphysis
  • Epiphyseal plate
110
Q

What is the diaphysis of long bone?

A

A shaft consisting of marrow cavity surrounded by compact bone (little spongy bone between compact bone & marrow)

111
Q

What is the epiphysis of long bone?

A

The expanded end; mainly spongy bone surrounded by thin outer shell of compact bone

112
Q

What is the metaphysis of long bone?

A

The flared portion between diaphysis & epiphysis

113
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate of long bone?

A

Cartilage that separates epiphyseal & diaphyseal cavities which maintains growth process

114
Q

Give two examples of flat bone

A

Skull and sternum

115
Q

Describe flat bone

A

Thin and plate-like

116
Q

Name the two bone forms

A
  • Woven (immatute)

- Lamellar (adult)

117
Q

What do osteoblasts produce?

A

Osteoid (rapidly)

118
Q

What do osteoblasts form?

A

Forms random collagen fibres in osteoid

119
Q

What does lamellar do and why? (development)

A

Replaces woven bone as it’s stronger

120
Q

Describe lamellar bone

A

Regular parallel collagen sheets

121
Q

What does woven bone have a role in?

A
  • Fetal bone development
  • Healing fracture
  • Paget’s disease
122
Q

What are the 6 zones where the transition between cartilage and new bone occurs?

A
  1. Reserve cartilage
  2. Proliferation
  3. Maturation
  4. Hypertrophy / calcification
  5. Cartilage degeneration
  6. Osteogenic
123
Q

What does the reserve cartilage zone consist of?

A

Chondrocytes

124
Q

Does proliferation occur in the reserve cartilage zone?

125
Q

What happens in the proliferation zone?

A

Chondrocytes undergo mitotic divisions

126
Q

What happens in the maturation zone?

A

Chondrocytes increase in size

127
Q

What happens in the hypertrophy / calcification zone?

A

Chondrocytes and lacunae are enlarged & matrix calcified

128
Q

What happens in the cartilage degeneration zone?

A

Chondrocytes degenerate

129
Q

What happens in the osteogenic zone?

A

Osteoblasts commence bone formation – deposit osteoid on exposed cartilage

130
Q

What are the five types of fractures

A
  • Simple
  • Compound/impacted
  • Comminuted
  • Greenstick
  • Stress
131
Q

Give the 5 steps in a bone fracture

A
  1. Blood clot forms at fracture site (6-8h)
  2. Replaced by collagen tissue
  3. Chondroblasts lay down cartilage (provisional callus) (2-3 weeks)
  4. Osteoblasts lay down woven bone (bony callus) (3-4 months)
  5. Bony callus then remodelled to mature lamellar bone
132
Q

What are the two types of ossification / osteogenesis

A
  • Intramembranous ossification

- Endochondral ossification

133
Q

What occurs in intramembranous ossification?

A

Direct chondrocytes lay down bone

134
Q

What is endochondral ossification most common in?

A

In fracture healing

135
Q

What are fractures of long bones treated by?

A

Plaster of Paris

136
Q

What does endochondral ossification involve as a precursor?

A

Involves cartilage as a precursor

137
Q

What can fractiures be treated with in intramembranous ossification?

A

With internal fixation with screws/pins

138
Q

What percentage of the bodies calcium is in bone?

139
Q

What are the two calcium compartments called?

A
  • Bone fluid

- Mineralised bone

140
Q

What type of exchange occurs in bone fluid?

A

Fast exchange by pumps

141
Q

What type of exchange occurs in mineralised bone?

A

Slow exchange by bone resorption

142
Q

What happens in mineralised bone?

A

The osteoclasts phagocytic activity is increased and Ca2+ is released during low Ca2+ levels

143
Q

What is the function of vitamin D in bone growth?

A

To promote osteoblast differentiation

144
Q

What is the function of growth hormone in bone growth?

A

To promote osteoblast function

145
Q

What is the function of oestrogen in bone growth?

A

To inhibit osteoclast

146
Q

What is the function of calcitonin in bone growth?

A

To inhibit osteoclast

147
Q

What is the function of cortisol in bone loss?

A

To promote osteoblast death (apoptosis)

148
Q

What is the function of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in bone loss?

A

To activate osteoclast

149
Q

What is the function of the thyroid in bone loss?

A

To activate osteoclast

150
Q

What is the function of vitamin A in bone loss?

A

To activate osteoclast

151
Q

What happens in bone growth?

A

Osteoblast is activated and osteoclast is inhibited

152
Q

What happens in bone loss?

A

Osteoblast is inhibited and osteoclast is activated

153
Q

What are the three cartilage cells?

A
  • Mesenchymal cells
  • Chondroblasts
  • Chondrocytes
154
Q

What are the four bone cells?

A
  • Osteoprogenitor cells
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
155
Q

What are the three different parts of development and growth of cartilage?

A
  1. Chondrification (development)
  2. Interstitial Growth (mass)
  3. Appositional Growth (thickness)
156
Q

What are the two parts in development and growth of bone?

A
  1. Intramembranous Ossification

2. Endochondral Ossification

Physiology (28 decks)

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