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Biotechnology and Animal Breeding Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

broadly defined as applying biological knowledge to practical needs

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2
Q

What are the two categories for animal breeding perspectives?

A
  • reproductive technologies

- molecular technologies

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3
Q

What are the types of reproductive technologies?

A
  • AI
  • Estrus Synchronization
  • Embryo Transfer
  • Sex Control
  • Cloning
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4
Q

What are the types of molecular technologies?

A
  • DNA Fingerprinting
  • Marker Assisted Selection
  • Gene Transfer
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5
Q

What is sex control?

A
  • sperm sexing/sorting

- determine sex of embryos, the ability to generate just male or female offspring

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6
Q

What is cloning?

A

creating a genetically identical individual, asexual

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7
Q

What is marker assisted selection?

A

marker improves precision of selection

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8
Q

What is gene transfer?

A

ability to produce transgenics

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9
Q

What does the extent of the impact of biotechnology in animal breeding depend on?

A
  • effectiveness
  • practicality
  • cost
  • public perception
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10
Q

What is animal breeding a branch of?

A

a branch of genetics

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11
Q

What is reproduction an aspect of?

A

an aspect of physiology

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12
Q

What are selection and mating decisions made in context of?

A

available reproductive technologies

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13
Q

What does artificial insemination use?

A

semen collected from males

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14
Q

How is semen used for artificial insemination?

A

used fresh, cooled or frozen

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15
Q

Why is AI not always easy or practical?

A
  • females in heat
  • moved to breeding area
  • properly inseminated at correct time
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16
Q

What is estrus synchronization?

A

use of hormones to induce females to come into heat at same time

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17
Q

What is estrus synchronization?

A

use of hormones to induce females to come into heat at same time

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18
Q

Why is estrus synchronization done?

A

to reduce the number of days to inseminate

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19
Q

What does PGF2α (2 is a subscore thing) cause?

A

a regression of CL and decrease in progesterone synthesis, causing ovulation to occur

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20
Q

What does Progestogen do?

A

negative feedback on hypothalamus by blocking LH and FSH

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21
Q

What does GnRH do?

A

ovulation/luteinization of growing follicle

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22
Q

What is Cidr?

A

controlled internal drug release, released progesterone into animal in different intervals

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23
Q

What is embryo transfer?

A

collection of embryos from superior donor females which are then transferred to less-superior recipient females

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24
Q

What is done to the donor for embryo transfer?

A

she is superovulated

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25
Q

How is an animal made superovulated?

A

hormone injection causing her to develop and release more ova than normal

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26
Q

What happens after the donor is inseminated?

A

embryos are transferred to recipients or frozen

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27
Q

What does embryo transfer allow?

A

females to have many more offspring than normal

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28
Q

What are some problems with embryo transfer?

A
  • identifying candidates is difficult due to limited data

- certain problems for genetic evaluation

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29
Q

Why are there problems with genetic evaluation for embryo transfer?

A
  • traits with maternal effects

- recipients usually not high quality animals

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30
Q

____ is to the female as _____ is to the male.

A

embryo transfer; AI

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31
Q

Is embryo transfer cheaper or more expensive than AI?

A

more costly

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32
Q

Is embryo transfer easier or more difficult than AI?

A

more difficult

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33
Q

What must be done for embryo transfer if using fresh embryos?

A

must synchronize donor and recips

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34
Q

Why must donor and recips be synchronized if using fresh embryos?

A

embryos have to implant in the recip, so the recip should be in the same physiological state as the donor (same level of hormonal activity) to prevent rejection of embryo

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35
Q

If embryos are not fresh, must the donor and recip be synchronized?

A

you just need to focus on the recip

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36
Q

What are the steps of embryo transfer?

A
  • superovulation of donor with gonadotropins
  • AI (5 days after initiating superovulation)
  • nonsurgical recovery of embryos (6 to 8 says after insemination)
  • foley catheter for recovering embryos
  • isolation and classification of embryos
  • storage of embryos indefinitely in liquid nitrogen or at 37 C or room temp for 1 day)
  • transfer of embryos to recipients surgically or nonsurgically
  • pregnancy diagnosis by palpation through the rectal wall 1 to 3 months after embryo transfer
  • birth (9 months after embryo transfer)
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37
Q

What is In Vitro Fertilization?

A

fertilization in a test tube

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38
Q

How are eggs collected for in vitro fertilization?

A

eggs (oocytes) collected from donor female through aspiration of the reproductive tract

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39
Q

What is done with eggs after collected?

A

incubated/matured and fertilized in lab, then frozen or transferred to recip

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40
Q

know basic principle of IVF (slide 12)

A

(female) hormonal treatment -> harvest the ovum -> mature ovum
(male) natural ejaculation -> collect semen -> motile sperms

-> mix in a test tube -> keep to develop embryo -> transfer to mother

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41
Q

What does ART stand for?

A

assisted reproductive technique

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42
Q

What are the two ways to harvest eggs?

A
  • Ultrasound Guided Aspiration

- Laparoscopy

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43
Q

What does it mean to harvest eggs by ultrasound guided aspiration?

A

pull eggs into one single location

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44
Q

What is a laparoscopy in terms of egg collection?

A

minimal invasive surgery that uses thin, lighted tube put through an incision in the belly to look at the abdominal or female pelvic organs

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45
Q

At what stage are embryos transferred?

A

8-cell stage or blastocyst stage

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46
Q

What does it mean if embryos are in the blastocyst stage?

A

have overcome heat shock

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47
Q

What are the advantages of In Vitro Fertilization?

A
  • increased number of possible pregnancies
  • collect eggs repeatedly from same donor at short intervals
  • doesn’t have to be at certain stage of estrous cycle
  • there is no need to superovulate the donor females
  • decreased generation interval
  • eggs collected from young, prepubertal females
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48
Q

What are disadvantages of In Vitro Fertilization?

A
  • expensive
  • success rate relatively low
  • abnormalities of offspring
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49
Q

How is the sex of embryos determined?

A

by physically removing a few cells and examining chromosomes

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50
Q

Why are embryos sexed?

A

so you can ship just to those that need male or female

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51
Q

What are the two methods used to determine sex of embryos?

A
  • Y-specific DNA probe

- Y-specific DNA primer and PCR

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52
Q

What is a DNA probe?

A

a predetermined sequence

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53
Q

How does Y-specific DNA probe work for sexing embryos?

A

if it doesn’t bind you know it is female, and if it hybridizes you know it is male

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54
Q

What does PCR stand for?

A

polymerase chain reaction

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55
Q

What are DNA primers?

A

short sequences that range from 17 to 21 nucleotides

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56
Q

How does Y-specific DNA Primer and PCR work for sexing embryos?

A

primer orients DNA polymerase to bind to specific place in Y region. Then use PCR which amplifies DNA

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57
Q

What is sperm sorting?

A

it is possible to sort sperm carrying female sex chromosome from male sex chromosome

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58
Q

Is sperm sexing commercially viable?

A

the rate used to be too slow to make it commercially viable, but now it is

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59
Q

What is the method used to sort sperm?

A

flow cytometry

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60
Q

What is flow cytometry?

A

measurement of cells based on DNA content of sperm cells, as they flow by a detector

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61
Q

How do X chromosome bearing cells compare to Y?

A

X chromosome bearing cells contain 4% more DNA than Y chromosome

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62
Q

Know steps of flow cytometry

A

slide 26-27

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63
Q

What are sorted out when sperm are sorted?

A

dead sperm/ sperm that don’t have a detectable charge

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64
Q

When was the ability to separate X and Y sperm researched?

A

1980s

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65
Q

When was the ability to sex sperm commercially available?

A

2004

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66
Q

What does sexing semen for cattle take advantage of?

A

female sperm having 3.8% more DNA

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67
Q

Is sexing sperm for cattle a fast process?

A

no it is a slow process since it takes 4 times longer to process the semen

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68
Q

What are the results of sexing semen for cattle?

A
  • ability to produce desired sex of calf with 90% accuracy
  • AI companies can package less sperm cells since the dead and abnormal cells are sorted off
  • Semen now commercially available
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69
Q

How is sexing semen for cattle applied?

A
  • first used on dairy to reduce number of bull calves (bulls worth $50 and heifers valued at $350)
  • sex choice depends on herd genetics and marketing programs
  • commercial herds want male calves from cows
  • seedstock herds want male calves for resale
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70
Q

What is the point in sex control?

A
  • one sex is more valuable than the other depending on the operation
  • better economics
  • crossbreeding systems
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71
Q

How is one sex more valuable than the other depending on the operations?

A
  • males for meat

- females for milk

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72
Q

How does sex control contribute to better economics

A

sire strong for maternal traits can be used to produce female offspring

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73
Q

What is cloning?

A

technology for the production of genetically identical individuals asexually

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74
Q

Is embryo splitting cloning?

A

it’s more of a way of improving efficiency of embryo transfer than cloning

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75
Q

What is embryo splitting?

A

cutting embryo in half to produce twin embryos and then transfer to recips

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76
Q

How is cloning done?

A

Nuclear Transplantation

77
Q

What are the steps of cloning by nuclear transplantation?

A
  • eggs matured in vitro
  • nuclei surgically removed
  • individual cells from multi-cell embryo inserted into each ova (egg)
  • the ova support growth
  • produce a number of identical embryos
  • embryos can be transferred or frozen OR can serve as cell donors for repeated cycles of cloning by nuclear transplantation
  • measure cloned animals for performance
78
Q

How are cloned animals measured for performance?

A
  • progeny test
  • statistical analysis
  • shorten Gi (gestation interval)
79
Q

What are the types of cloning?

A
  • reproductive

- therapeutic

80
Q

What is reproductive cloning?

A

results in a live animal

81
Q

What is therapeutic cloning?

A

leave cells at stage where they can be used for therapeutic reasons (like stem cells?)

82
Q

What is a downside to cloning if you need to cross clonal lines?

A

inbreeding depression

83
Q

What are benefits of cloning?

A
  • big jump in genetic merit
  • increased uniformity of performance
  • observed variation due to environment
  • increase accuracy of selection
84
Q

How has cloning led to a jump in genetic merit?

A

one generation of genetically elite animals

85
Q

What does it mean that there is observed variation due to environment as a result of cloning?

A

despite being a clone, the environment will influence the behavior of the individual
-the higher the heritability for the trait, the more uniform the population for that trait

86
Q

How does cloning increase accuracy of selection?

A
  • by virtue of large amounts of performance data for each clonal line
  • increased selection intensity by providing virtually unlimited access to very best clonal lines
87
Q

What are problems with cloning?

A
  • small number of clonal lines
  • single clonal line comprises significant proportion of population
  • time consuming to genetically evaluate each line before making commercially available
  • some abnormal newborns
  • many die
  • expensive
88
Q

What results if there is a small number of clonal lines?

A
  • lose genetic variation needed for future improvement

- excessive inbreeding

89
Q

What results if single clonal line comprises significant proportion of population

A

-risk that line could be susceptible to pathogen or environmental stress which lead to widespread loss of production

90
Q

How is cloning expensive?

A

waste of creating clonal lines, then you select only a few and discard the rest

91
Q

What was the first adult animal cloned?

A

Dolly

92
Q

Where was Dolly cloned?

A

Roslin Institute

93
Q

Who cloned Dolly?

A

Ian Wilmut

94
Q

How many attempts were made before Dolly was born?

A

277

95
Q

What tissue were the cells used to make Dolly collected form?

A

mammary tissue

96
Q

Are clones healthy?

A

not conclusive

97
Q

What is inserted into ovum to clone?

A

mature, differentiated cells

98
Q

What must be in the mature differentiated cells that are inserted into ovum?

A

all genes necessary for growth must be there

99
Q

What happens to somatic cell’s genes for cloning?

A

“turned on” again to produce different types of tissues

100
Q

How do cloned animals age?

A

rapidly

101
Q

What happens to telomeres of cloned animals?

A

unravel

102
Q

What are telomeres?

A
  • protective caps

- specialized terminal structures on chromosomes that ensure the maintenance and accurate replication of chromosome

103
Q

What is progeria?

A

a disorder that caused rapid aging

104
Q

Could we use cloning on animals that have proven genetic worth?

A

yes

105
Q

What is the roslin method of cloning (Steps)?

A

SLIDE 48

106
Q

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

technique for creating ovum with donor nucleus

107
Q

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer used in?

A
  • embryonic stem cell research
  • “therapeutic” cloning
  • reproductive cloning
108
Q

What was/is the first step of somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

reproductive cloning

109
Q

What does SCNT stand for?

A

somatic cell nuclear transfer

110
Q

What are the limitations of somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A
  • stresses placed on both egg cell and introduced nucleus are enormous
  • Dolly
  • procedure cannot be automated
  • biochemistry involved in reprogramming differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating recipient ovum
  • not all of donor’s genetic info is transfered
  • clones not perfect copies of donor nucleus
111
Q

Explain SCNT limitations in relation to DOlly?

A
  • 277 ova used
  • 29 viable embryos
  • 3 lambs
  • 1 survived
112
Q

What does stress placed on egg cell and nucleus result in for SCNT?

A

high loss in resulting cells

113
Q

Why can SCNT not be automated?

A

it has to be done manually under a microscope

114
Q

Is the biochemistry involved in reprogramming differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating recipient ovum well understood?

A

no

115
Q

Why is not all of donor’s genetic information transferred from SCNT?

A
  • mitochondrial DNA is left behind

- hybrid cells retain those structures which originally belonged to ovum

116
Q

What proposals have been raised for SCNT?

A

use in human stem cell research

117
Q

What concerns have been raised over SCNT use in human stem cell research?

A

set of concerns beyond moral status of created embryo

118
Q

What has been created from human stem cell research?

A

blastula

119
Q

What does the creation of blastula in human stem cell research lead to?

A

reproductive cloning of humans

120
Q

When is there a higher chance of implantation?

A

at blastula stage

121
Q

What controversies have been brought up over SCNT?

A
  • reproductive cloning of humans and human stem cell research
  • appropriate sourcing of ovum that are needed (for human stuff?)
122
Q

What first step would be used for reproductive cloning of humans and human stem cell research?

A

-creation of nuclear transferred embryo

123
Q

What do those concerned with human cloning/human stem cell research advocate for?

A

strong regulation of SCNT

124
Q

What is required for human cloning/human stem cell research?

A

human ova

125
Q

What is human ova obtaine from?

A

women

126
Q

What is the most common source of ova?

A

produced in excess of clinical need during IVF treatment

127
Q

What is same sex mating?

A

mating of individuals of same sex

  • mate best sires to best sires
  • also mating individuals to themselves
128
Q

What procedures would same sex mating use?

A

procedures for nuclear transplantation and embryo transfer

129
Q

What is the technique used for same sex mating?

A

nuclear fusion

130
Q

What is nuclear fusion?

A

artificial fertilization that combines the nuclei of two gametes

131
Q

Is same sex mating currently working?

A

no it is theoretical

132
Q

Why may same sex mating never work?

A

may need chromosomes from both male and female origins to support fetal development

133
Q

Why should same sex mating be attempted?

A

increase selection accuracy and intensity

134
Q

What would result from a male x male mating?

A
  • 2 males (XY)
  • 1 female (XX)
  • 1 no go (YY)
135
Q

What would result from a female x female mating?

A

-all females (XX)

136
Q

What is mating individuals to themselves called?

A

selfing

137
Q

What is DNA fingerprinting?

A

lab method for graphically characterizing an individual’s DNA

138
Q

What sample is taken for DNA fingerprinting?

A

sample of blood or other tissue

139
Q

What is done after sample is collected for DNA fingerprinting?

A

DNA extracted

140
Q

DNA is ______.

A

polymorphic

141
Q

What does polymorphic mean?

A

at least 2 alternative alleles occurring in population

142
Q

What happens after DNA is extracted for dna fingerprinting?

A

DNA is chemically copied and placed on gel

143
Q

How is DNA sorted on the gel?

A

by electrophoresis

144
Q

What is electrophoresis?

A

method that separates macromolecules, either nucleic acids or proteins-on the basis of size, electric charge, and other physical properties

145
Q

Can twins be genetically told apart?

A

yes

146
Q

What are the steps of DNA fingerprinting (in notes)?

A
  • DNA Extraction
  • Polymerase chain reaction (more steps under this in notes)
  • put on gel
  • gel electrophoresis
147
Q

What are the steps of PCR cycling condition?

A
  • denaturation step (94 C)
  • annealing step (36 C)
  • elongation step (72 C)
148
Q

How many bars appear on the gel if heterozygote?

A

2

149
Q

What results from gel electrophoresis?

A

pattern of bands that represent the presence of specific alleles at number of loci

150
Q

What does PCR do?

A

chemically copy DNA

151
Q

What are the uses of DNA fingerprinting?

A
  • multiple sire pasture system
  • identify parents more accurately
  • predict hybrid vigor
152
Q

What is multiple sire pasture system used instead of?

A

AI or hand mating

153
Q

What does DNA fingerprinting multiple sire pasture system allow you to do?

A

see which bull is able to impregnate more females by natural cover

154
Q

How does DNA fingerprinting allow parents to be identified more accurately?

A

avoid faulty pedigrees

155
Q

_______ will have greater hybrid vigor.

A

less related individuals

156
Q

How is genetic merit currently evaluated?

A

in the form of EPDs, which are computed from phenotypes on the individual and its relatives

157
Q

What is marker assisted selection?

A

selection for specific alleles using genetic markers

158
Q

What is a genetic marker?

A

detectable genes for DNA fragments used to identify alleles at linked locus

159
Q

When talking about genetic markers, what does detectable mean?

A

we can identify different versions of alleles

160
Q

Why are some alleles detectable (in terms of genetic markers identifying them)?

A

they produce easily distinguishable phenotypes

161
Q

How are genetic markers now detected?

A

DNA fingerprinting

162
Q

What is Linkage Analysis?

A

mathematical process that uses information from specially bred populations to determine whether 2 loci are linked and how closely

163
Q

What are the best “markers”?

A

the alleles of interest themselves

164
Q

What is marker assisted selection more difficult to use in?

A

polygenetic traits

165
Q

What are examples of polygenetic traits?

A

growth rate, racing ability

166
Q

Is the performance of polygenetic traits affected by one gene?

A

not much

167
Q

How do geneticists estimate linkage distance?

A

examining the rate at which genes segregate at 2 loci recombined

168
Q

When does crossing over occur?

A

if distantly linked

169
Q

If crossing over occurs, how does that affected marker assisted selection?

A

marker will “code” for alternate allele

170
Q

What is a more realistic approach to genetic merit evaluation?

A

phenotypes and DNA tests on the individual and its relatives are combined, through National Cattle Evaluation (NCE), to produce marker-adjusted EPDs, upon which selection decisions are made

171
Q

Is that realistic approach to genetic merit evaluation used?

A

maybe someday, but it is too far off in the future to be of practical value

172
Q

What are the types of molecular markers?

A
  • Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
  • Microsatellites
  • Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
  • Copy Number Variation (CNV)
173
Q

What is Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism?

A

exploits variation in homologous DNA sequences to distinguish between individuals

174
Q

What is Microsatellites?

A

a tract of repetitive DNA which can be tracked and associated with differences in Phenotypes (ex. can be used to tract inheritance of genes in families)

175
Q

What is Single Nucleotide Polymorphism?

A

a single base change in sequences of organisms that are associated with performance or disease outcomes

176
Q

What is Copy Number Variation?

A

structural alterations in genome which results in abnormal number of copies of one or more sections of the DNA

177
Q

What is gene transfer?

A

transplantation of specific genes from one individual to another

178
Q

What does gene transfer involve?

A

transfer of gene coding for important proteins from domestic animals to bacteria

179
Q

What happens when the bacteria are genetically altered (gene transfer)?

A

the bacteria manufacture the protein cheaply

180
Q

Is gene transfer a fast or slow process?

A

slow

181
Q

Why is gene transfer a slow process?

A
  • only one copy of a gene is transferred at one time
  • takes generations to spread that gene throughout population
  • gene could end up anywhere in the genome
182
Q

What does transgenic mean?

A

an individual has received genetic material by gene transfer

183
Q

What are the types of transgenic animals?

A
  • dairy cows

- animals

184
Q

What do transgenic dairy cows do?

A

produce human insulin

185
Q

What is a reason for making transgenic animals (not dairy cows)?

A

genes for disease resistance

186
Q

Is gene transfer easier to do in animals or plants?

A

plants

187
Q

Why is gene transfer easier in plants than animals?

A

many traits are simply inherited and simple regulated

188
Q

What resistances are gene transferred into plants?

A
  • pest resistance

- insecticide resistance

Genetics (24 decks)

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