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biology chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

cell division

A

is the process by which a cell doubles its organelles and cytoplasm, replicates its DNA, and then divides in two

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2
Q

unicellular organisms

A

cell division is a means of reproduction

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3
Q

multicellular organisms

A

is a method of growth, development, and replacement of worn-out cells

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4
Q

mitosis

A

is the division and distribution of the cell’s DNA to its two daughter cells such that each recieves a complete copy of the original genome

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5
Q

karyokinesis

A

nuclear division

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6
Q

cytokinesis

A

cell division

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7
Q

interphase

A

a period of growth and replication of genetic material prior to the initiation of mitosis

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8
Q

prophase

A

the chromosomes condense, and the centriole pairs separate and move towards the opposite poles of the cell. The spindle apparatus forms between them and the nuclear membrane dissolves, allowing the spindle fibers to interact with the chromosome

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9
Q

metaphase

A

the centriole pairs are now at opposite poles of the cell. The fiers of the spindle apparatus attach to each chromatid at the centromere to align the chromosomes at the center of the cell forming the metaphase plate

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10
Q

anaphase

A

the centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, thus allowing sister chromatids to separate. The sister chromatids are pulled toward the opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the spindle fibers.

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11
Q

telophase

A

the spindle apparatus disappears. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of newly formed chromosomes. Thus each nucleus contains the same number of chromosomes as the original or parent nucleus. The chromosomes uncoil, resuming their interphase form

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12
Q

cytokinesis

A

near the end of telophase, the cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells, each with a complete nucleus and its own set of organelles

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13
Q

cleavage furrow

A

in animal cells,. The cell membrane indents along the equator of the cell and finally inches through the cell, separating the two nuclei

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14
Q

plant cells

A

lack centrioles. The spindle apparatus is synthesized by microtubule organizing centers which are not visible. Are rigid and cannot form a cleavage furrow. They divide by the formation of a cell plate

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15
Q

cell plate

A

an expanding partition that grows outward from the interior of the cell until it reaches the cell membrane

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16
Q

meiosis

A

is the process by which these sex cells are produced. Produces the haploid (!N) number, halving the number of chromosomes. Involves two divisions of primary sex cells resulting in four haploid cells called gametes

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17
Q

interphase

A

the parent cell’s chromosomes are replicated during interphase resulting in the 2N number of sister chromatids

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18
Q

first meiotic division

A

the first division produces two intermediate daughter cells with N chromosomes with sister chromatids

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19
Q

prophase I

A

the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the spindle apparatus forms, and the nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear

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20
Q

synapsis

A

homologous chromosomes come toggether and intertwine

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21
Q

tetrad

A

each synaptic pair of homologous chromosomes contains four chromatids

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22
Q

crossing over

A

chromatids of homologous chromosomes break at corresponding points and exchange equivalent pieces of DNA

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23
Q

metaphase I

A

homologous pairs (tetrads) align at the equatorial plane, and each pair attaches to a separate spindle fiber by its kinetochore

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24
Q

anaphase I

A

the homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell

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25
disjunction
each chromosome of paternal origin separates (or disjoins) from its homologue of maternal origin, and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell
26
telophase I
a nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus. At this point, each chromosome still consists of sister chromatids joined at the centromere
27
second meiotic division
the chromosomes aligh at the equator, separate and move to opposite poles, and are surrounded by a reformed nuclear membrane
28
asexual reproduction
is the production of offspring without fertilization
29
fission
binary fission is a simple form of asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotic organisms. The DNA replicates and a new plasma membrane and cell wall grow inward along the midline of the cell, dividing it into two equally sized cells with equal amounts of cytoplasm, each containing a duplicate of the parent chromosome
30
budding
is the replication of the nucleus followed by unequal cytokinesis. The cell membrane pinches inward to form a new cell that is smaller in size but genetically identical to the parent cell, and which subsequently grows to adult size. The new cell may separate immediately from the parent or it may remain attached to it, develop as an outgrowth, and seaparate at a later stage
31
regeneration
is the regrowth of a lost or injured body part. Replacement of cells occurs by mitosis
32
parthenogenesis
is the development of an unfertilized egg into an adult organism. This process occurs naturally in certain lower organisms
33
spore formation
all plants exhibit alternation of generations in which a diploid generation is succeeded by a haploid generation. The diploid sporphyte generation produces haploid spores which develop into the haploid gametophyte generation
34
vegetative propagation
undifferentiated tissues in plants, called meristems, provide a source of cells that can develop into an adult plant. Can occur naturally, or through human intervention. Is advantageous because it introduces no genetic variation and is a rapid form of reproduction
35
bulbs
split to form several bulbs.
36
tubers
are underground stems with buds, like the eyes of potatoes, that can develop into adult plants
37
runners
are stems running above and along the ground, extending from the main stem. Can produce new roots and upright stems as they do in strawberry and lawn grasses
38
rhizomes
are woody, underground stems. They can develop new upright stems as they do in ferms and iris plants
39
auxins
synthetic plant hormones that can be used to accelerate root formation
40
layering
stems of certain plants wil take root when bent to the ground and covered with soil
41
sexual reproduction
occurs via the fusion of two gametes- specialized sex cells produced by each parent. Requires: the production of functional sex cells or gametes by adult organisms, the union of these cells (fertilization or conjugation) to form a zygote, and the development of the zygote into another adult, completeing the cycle
42
gonads
specialized organs where the gametes are produced
43
testes
the male gonads that produce sperm in the tightly coiled seminiferous tubules
44
ovaries
the female gonads that produce oocytes (eggs)
45
hermaphrodites
which have both functional male and female gonads
46
spermatogenesis
sperm production. Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
47
mature sperm
is an elongated cell with a head, tail, neck, and body
48
head
consists almost entirely of the nucleus which contains the paternal genome
49
tail (flagellum)
propels the sperm, while mitochondria in the neck and body provide energy for locomotion
50
oogenesis
the production of female gametes, occurs in the ovaries
51
polar body
which is a small cell that contains little more than the nucleus
52
fertilization
is the union of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a zygote with a diploid number of chromosomes
53
external fertilization
occurs in vertebrates that reproduce in water. The female lays eggs in the water and the male deposits sperm in the vicinity. The lack of direct passage of sperm from male to female reduces the chances of fertilization considerably
54
internal fertilization
is practiced by terrestrial vertebrates and provides a direct route for sperm to reach the egg cell. This increases the chance for fertilization success and females produce fewer eggs.
55
testosterone
regulates secondary male sex characteristics including facial and pubic hair, and voice changes
56
spermatogonia
diploid cells that differeniate into diploid cells
57
spermatozoa
are specialized for transporting the sperm nucleus to the egg
58
acrosome
a cap like structure derived from the golgi apparatus, develops over the anterior half of the head. Contains enzymes needed to penetrate the tough outer covering of the ovum
59
ovaries
found in the abdominal cavity, below the digestive system
60
follicle
is a multi-layered sac of cells that contains, nourishes, and protects an immature ovum
61
uterus
site of fetal development
62
cervix
lower, narrow end of the uterus. Connects with the vaginal canal
63
vaginal canal
is the site of sperm deposition during intercourse and is also the passageway through which a aby is expelled during child birth
64
estrogens
are steroid hormones necessary for normal female maturation. They stimulate the development of the female reproductive tract and contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive. Are also responsible for thickening of the endometrium (uterine wall). are secreted by the ovarian follicles and the corpus luteum
65
progesterone
is a steroid hormone secreted by the corpus luteum during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls in preparation for implantation
66
menstrual cycle
can be divided into the follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation
67
follicular phase
begins with the cessation of the menstrual flow from the previous cycle. FSH from the anterior pituitary promotes the development of the follicle, which grows and begins secreting estrogen
68
ovulation
a mature ovarian follicle bursts and releases an ovum midway through the cycle. Is caused by a surge in LH which is preceded, and in part caused, by a peak in estrogen levels
69
luteal phase
LH (luteinizing hormone) induces the ruptured follice to develop into the corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone causes the glands of the endometrium to mature and produce secretions that prepare it for the implantation of an embryo
70
menstruation
the resulting drop in progesterone and estrogen levels caues the endometrium to slough off, giving rise to the menstrual flow
71
oogenesis
is the production of female gametes, occurs in the ovarian follicles
72
primary oocytes
all of the immature ova that a female will produce during her lifetime are already in her ovaries. They are diploid cells that form by mitosis in the ovary
73
fertilization
an egg can be fertilized during the 12-24 hours following ovulation. Occurs in the lateral, widest portion of the fallopian tube.
74
monozygotic (identical) twins
result when a single zygote splits into two embryos. Are genetically identical, since they develop from the same zygote. They are therefore of the same sex, blood type, and so on.
75
dizygotic (fraternal) twins
result when tw ova are released in one ovarian cycle and are fertilized by two different sperm. They share no more characteristics than any other siblings since they develop from two distinct zygotes
76
haploid gametophyte generation
produces gametes by mitosis. Union of the male and female gametes at fertilization restores the diploid sporophyte generation
77
diploid sporophyte generation
produces a haploid (monoploid) spore by meiosis. The spores divide by mitosis to produce the haploid or gametophyte generation
78
flower
is the reproductive structure of angiosperms
79
stamen
is the male organ of the flower and consits of a thin stalk like filament with a terminal sac called the anther. The anther produces monoploid spores which develop into pollen grains
80
epicotyl
this is the precursor of the upper stem and leaves
81
cotyledons
these are the seed leaves. Dicots have two seed leaves while monocots have only one
82
hypocotyl
this develops into the lower stem and root
83
endosperm
the endosperm grows and feeds the embryo. In dicots, the cotyledon absorbs the endosperm
84
seed coat
develops from the outer covering of the ovule. The embryo and its seed coat together comprise the seed
85
apical meristem
is found in the tips of roots and stems. Growth in length occurs only at these points
86
lateral meristem
or cambium is located between the xylem and phloem. This tissue permits growth in diameter and can differentiate into new xylem and phloem cells

PCAT (27 decks)

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