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Biology IB > B2.3 (Cell Specialization) > Flashcards

B2.3 (Cell Specialization) Flashcards

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1
Q

Define fertilization on terms of cells

A

multi-step process in which a sperm and egg fuse to form a single cell called a zygote.

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2
Q

Where does fertilization occur?

A

In sexually-reproducing organisms that produce haploid (single set unpaired chromosome) gametes

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3
Q

How does a zygote become an embryo?

A

Zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo of genetically identical cells

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4
Q

Outline the process of mitosis

A

a eukaryotic cell nucleus splits in two nuclei, followed by the division of the parent cell into two daughter cells

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5
Q

Explain which stages of embryonic development embryonic stem cells are found and when they become differentiated

A

The cells in zygote and embryo are unspecialized stem cells called ”embryonic stem cells” However, as the cells of the embryo continue to divide, they begin to specialize in structure and function.

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6
Q

Why is cell specialization needed?

A

It allows cells to perform a function with increased efficiency.
- Cells can develop into specific shapes and sizes
- Cells can create proteins needed to carry out specific metabolic reactions

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7
Q

Why are eukaryotes eukaryotes

A

They have a nucleus.

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8
Q

Define cell differentiation

A

The development of specialized structures and functions in cells

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9
Q

Describe gene expression

A

The process by which the information encoded in a gene is used into the synthesis of a functional gene 🧬 product

Often in gene expression, a sequence of DNA is transcribed from RNA which is then translated to form a protein

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10
Q

Define morphogens

A

Gradients of signaling chemicals that impact gene expression and as a result, the differentiation of the cell.
(TURNS CERTAIN GENES ON AND OFF??)

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11
Q

Describe differentiation during embryonic development from blastocyst to fetus

A

a

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12
Q

How do the morphogens make the gradient

A

Create a concentration gradient: Morphogens are released from a specific source in the developing tissue and diffuse outwards. This creates a gradient, with the highest concentration closest to the source and gradually decreasing as you move further away.

  • Trigger different developmental fates: Cells within the developing tissue interpret the concentration of the morphogen they sense. Different concentrations trigger specific genetic programs in the cells, instructing them to differentiate into different cell types.

Think of it like a volume knob: Imagine the morphogen concentration as a volume knob. Low settings (low concentration) activate genes for quiet music (one cell fate), while high settings (high concentration) activate genes for loud rock music (a different cell fate).

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13
Q

Why is the egg cell considered a differentiated cell

A

Because it is specialized; it contains only half of the genetic material (haploid)

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14
Q

How can the environment of a cell impact on gene expression? Have an example

A

1.) Environmental conditions can regulate gene expression.
e.g.: A protein called melanin is present in rabbits. It is regulated by a temperature-sensitive enzyme which would darken some parts of the rabbit

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15
Q

Describe tissues

A

A group of cells that specialize in the same way and perform the same function.
- only present in multicellular organisms

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16
Q

Outline the benefits of a cell specialization in a multicellular organism

A
  • focus on fewer tasks at once to do the work more efficiently while saving energy
  • they have specialized structures
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17
Q

Describe adult stem cells

A
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18
Q

Define stem cells [3]

A
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19
Q

Where are the (adult) stem cells found?

A

1.) The Bone Marrow
2.) The skin
3.) The lining of our intestine

20
Q

Describe embryonic stem cells

A

approx. 220 types
(note: both pluripotent and totipotent can be cultured)

21
Q

Define and explain stem cell niche

A

Precise location of stem cells within a tissue
- Why are they there?: It provides the microenvironment with conditions needed for stem cells to remain inactive (not carrying out a specific function) and undifferentiated for a long time and for it to proliferate when needed (e.g. bone marrow, skin and liver)

22
Q

Outline the differences between adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells on terms of location, potency and definition

A
23
Q

Describe totipotent cells

A

“whole”
- “ccan become any body cell”
-> Can become an entire complete organism
- can contain many other cells

-e.g.: only zygote

24
Q

Describe pluripotent stem cells

A

Can become any body cell but not the placenta

e.g.: the inner cell mass of a blastocyst

25
Q

Describe multipotent stem cells

A
26
Q

Explain why stem cells are most prevalent in the early embryonic development of a multicellular organism

A
  • The cells of the early embryo are the most versatile because they have differentiated the least
  • As the embryo develops, the cells gradually become more differentiated as they specialize for specific functions
27
Q

How does the cycle of the different types of stem cell go? (The development of differentiated cells)

A
28
Q

List two key properties that have made them on the active areas of research in biology and medicine today

A
  • Stem cells can divide repeatedly
    • for the treatment of tissues
  • Stem cells aren’t differentiated
    • no turned off genes so they can produce different cell types and thus different tissues
29
Q

Describe how the sperm cell’s shape adapts to its function

A

Sperm 50 micrometers long and extremely narrow.

  • The narrowness and small volume allow sperm to swim more efficiently
30
Q

Describe how the egg cell’s shape adapts to its function

A

Biggest volume of all cells (110 micrometers).
- allows large quantities of food reserves to be stored in the cytoplasm.
e.g. yolk

31
Q

Describe how the red blood cell’s shape adapts to its function

A

6 to 8 micrometers, 1 micrometer in the middle
- allows for faster loading and unloading of oxygen (because there’s more space for the oxygen exchange to occur)
- allow passage along narrow capillaries (they’re small enough to fit)

32
Q

Describe how the white blood cell’s shape adapts to its function

A

10 micrometers in diameter but can enlarge to 30 micrometer if activated.
- extra volume is cytoplasm w/ rER and golgi apparatus
- need more space for cytoplasm for the digestion of foreign bodies

33
Q

Describe how the motor neuron’s shape adapts to its function

A

20 micrometers
To adaptations: big cell body and long
- Big cell body: to synthesize proteins to maintain the long axon
- Long axons: to extend to carry signals to a distant muscle.

  • allows enough proteins to be synthesized to maintain long axon so it can extend to carry signals to a distant muscle
34
Q

Describe how the cerebellar granular cells’ shape adapts to its function

A

4.0 micrometers in diameter but twin axons extend for about 3 mm in the cerebellar cortex.
- Body adaptations: small and long
- the small volume of these neurons allows the cerebellum to accommodate 50 billion of them — 75% of the brain’s neurons
- Function: Cerebellum is associated with balance and coordination and in order for us to be balanced to coordinate, there needs to be a lot of neurons iirc

35
Q

Metabolism of the cell and the cytoplasm

A

total of the chemical reactions taking place in the cytoplasm of the cell (rate of reaction is proportional to the cell’s volume).

to continue, there must be absorption of substances by the cell for the usage and the removal of waste products (rate of mvmt depends on the surface area)

36
Q

What would occur to the metabolism of a cell if the SA:V is too low

A

The chemicals from the metabolic process are produced more rapidly then they are excreted (just a highlight, not all of the main point)

37
Q

Adaptations of type 1 pneumocytes in alveoli

A

Function 1: exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
- Hence the large surface area to volume ratio and size
Function 2: transfer gases to and from blood
- Hence the proximity to capillaries

38
Q

Adaptations of striated muscle fibers [4]

A

Functions/purpose: control the movement of our bones;

Body adaptation 1: large size;
- How does this contribute to the purpose?: So they can contract more than smaller muscle cells and they can exert greater force;

Body adaptation 2: many nuclei
- How does this contribute to the purpose?: so we can move controllably;

Body adaptation 3: many mitochondria
- How does this contribute to the purpose?: for more energy;

39
Q

Adaptations of cardiac cells

A

hypothesis: The cardiac cells join together by cytoplasm and membrane for ease of electrical signal transmission
Function: Keep heart beating by receiving electrical signals

40
Q

Adaptations of type II pneumocytes in alveoli (EDIT CARD)

A
  • produces phopsholipids (which is why they have mitochondria — for the energy)
    -> to protect the cells as vesicle contents can be corrosive (? assumption)
    -> but contents relieve surface tension of alveoli
41
Q

Give the indicators of Active Transport and the examples

A
  • Go against the concentration gradient: low to high
  • Requires energy (ATP). through a protein carrier
  • Endocytosis (and Exocytosis)
42
Q

Give the three methods why plasma membranes form a vesicle that ‘pinches off’.

A
  • Phagocytosis => large particles are surrounded when the cell membrane extends itself and engulfs it (resulting in membrane bound package of material)
  • Receptor-mediated Endocytosis => molecules bind to receptors on the membrane, and membrane sinks in to form vesicles, which a lysosome will join and break down substance to release it from the receptor. Substance diffuses into cytosol, and the receptor goes back to be recycled.

-> oh yeah it is because the receptors in the cell membrane could detect pathogens or anything harmful to the cell

Pinocytosis => for fluids. Cell membrane sinks in, material sinks inwards, and membrane pinches off.
-> This probably doesn’t need lysosomes

43
Q

Describe the disease Stargardt’s macular dystrophy;

A
  • Usually due to the mutation of a gene called ABCA4;
  • Causes membrane protein of active transport to malfunction;
  • Photoreceptive cells degenerate;
  • Vision becomes progressively worse;
44
Q

Describe the disease of leukemia [1[

A
  • abnormally large number of WBC’s are produced in the bone marrow
45
Q

Which type of stem cell can treat Stargardt’s macular dystrophy

A

Embryonic stem cells so they can form retina cells
- ig other types of stem cells aren’t enough? (bc adult is like partially differentiated right)

46
Q

Define ultrastructure

A

The detailed structure of a specimen when revealed by an electron microscope

Biology IB (27 decks)

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