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Biology > 6.4-aDvAnTaGeS aNd dIsAdVaNtAgEs (cloning and biotech) > Flashcards

6.4-aDvAnTaGeS aNd dIsAdVaNtAgEs (cloning and biotech) Flashcards

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1
Q

what are clones?

A

genetically identical organisms or cells

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2
Q

how are clones produced in nature?

A

asexual reproduction

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3
Q

how do single celled yeasts reproduce?

A

budding

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4
Q

how do bacteria reproduce?

A

binary fission

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5
Q

whAt aRe tHe aDvAnTaGeS of natural cloning?

A

1) if growth conditions are good for parent, they’re good for offspring.
2) relatively rapid-population can increase quickly to take advantage of advantageous environment.
3) reproduction can happen when only 1 parent is available.

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6
Q

whAt aRe tHe dIsaDvAnTaGeS of natural cloning?

A

1) offspring could become overcrowded
2) no genetic diversity
3) little variation
4) selection impossible
5) if environment becomes less advantageous whole population is susceptible.

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7
Q

what is vegetative propagation?

A

reproduction from vegetative parts of a plant as opposed to specialised reproductive structures.

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8
Q

how do plants reproduce by vegetative propagation?

A

1) runners, stolons,rhizomes, suckers
2) bulbs
3) corms
4) leaves
5) tubers

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9
Q

what are runners/stolens?

A

horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points, growing on the surface of the ground.

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10
Q

what are rhizomes?

A

horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points, growing underground.

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11
Q

what are suckers?

A

new stems that grow form the roots of a plant (root sprouts)

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12
Q

what is a perennial plant?

A

a plant that lives more than two years

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13
Q

what are monocotyledonous plants?

A

flowering plants whose seeds typically contain only one embryonic leaf.

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14
Q

what is the purpose of bulbs?

A

an overwintering mechanism for many perennial monocotyledonous plants.

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15
Q

what are bulbs made of?

A

a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that function as food storage organs during dormancy.

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16
Q

what are 2 examples of bulbs?

A

onions

hyacinth bulbs

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17
Q

what are corms?

A

underground stems with scaly leaves and buds

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18
Q

what is the difference between corms and bulbs?

A

corms are solid,bulbs are fleshy.

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19
Q

do corms stay in the ground over winter?

A

ye

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20
Q

what are 2 examples of corms?

A

croci (plural of crocus yeeet)

the root vegetable taro (also yeet)

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21
Q

how do leaves reproduce asexually?

A

clones grow on the leaf margins (edge of the leaf), immature plants drop off the leaf and take root.

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22
Q

what are tubers?

A

another type of underground stem

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23
Q

what is an example of a tuber?

A

potatoes

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24
Q

name a plant that reproduces by their leaves doing the cloning

A

the kalanchoe plant (tropical and succccculent)

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25
Q

how do identical twins form?

A

the 2 daughter cells of a zygote split to become 2 separate cells.

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26
Q

what are examples of animals that commonly reproduce asexually to produce clones?

A

greenfly

water flea

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27
Q

how are clones produced naturally in animals?

A

identical twins

asexual reproduction

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28
Q

what is micropropagation?

A

growing large numbers of new plants from meristem tissue taken from a sample plant.

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29
Q

what is tissue culture?

A

growing new cells, tissues, organs or plants from certain tissues cut from a sample plant.

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30
Q

how do you do plant cutting?

A

cut a stem in between 2 leaf joints (nodes) and put it in moist soil-can put it in rooting hormone to stimulate growth.

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31
Q

what parts of plants can you take cuttings from?

A

nodes
roots
scions`
leaves

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32
Q

how do you do a root cutting?

A

section of root buried just below soil surface produces new shoots

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33
Q

what is a scion?

A

dormant woody twig

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34
Q

what happens in leaf cuttings?

A

leaf places on moist soil and can grow new stems +roots

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35
Q

what are the advantages of natural cloning?

A

relatively rapid
can happen where sexual reproduction is impossible
same desirable characteristics as parent
unusual gene combo maintained
easier to grow and harvest
new plants free from viruses if u use apical stem.

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36
Q

what are the disadvantages of natural cloning?

A 
labour intensive 
expensive
can fail due to microbial contamination
susceptible to same pests + diseases
no genetic variation
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37
Q

what is embryo twinning?

A

splitting an embryo to create 2genetically identical embryos.

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38
Q

what is enucleation?

A

removal of the cell nucleus

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39
Q

what is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)?

A

a technique that involves transferring the nucleus from a somatic cell to an egg cell.

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40
Q

what does totipotent mean?

A

cells that can differentiate into all cell types

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41
Q

what are the 2 main techniques to achieve reproductive cloning?

A

embryo twinning

somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

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42
Q

what can embryo twinning be used for?

A

cloning elite farm animals

cloning animals for scientific research

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43
Q

when will you find out the phenotype and genotype of a embryo splitting offspring?

A

when they’re born cause it depends on the sperm and egg used

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44
Q

what is the only way to clone an adult animal?

A

SCNT (somatic cell nuclear transfer)

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45
Q

what is the advantage of SCNT?

A

the phenotype is known before cloning starts.

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46
Q

what happens during SCNT?

A

enucleation of egg, nucleus of somatic cell isolated and put into empty egg, electric shock, egg starts dividing mitosis, surrogate.

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47
Q

what is a somatic cell?

A

normal body cell

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48
Q

what’s a problem with transplanting donated organs?

A

could be rejected

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49
Q

what are 2 reasons for non reproductive cloning?

A

therapeutic cloning

cloning for scientific research

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50
Q

what does therapeutic cloning involve?

A

growing new tissues and organs as replacement parts for people who aren’t well.

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51
Q

what are 2 examples of therapeutic cloning?

A
  • skin grown in vitro to act as graft over burnt areas.

- cloned cells used to repair damage to the spinal cord

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52
Q

what are the arguments for artificial cloning in animals?

A

high yield
high value characteristics retained
scientific research-no interference from genotypes
can test medicine on cloned cells w/o using animals
can produce genetically identical cells to donor to repair damage
endangered species can be cloned to increase numbers

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53
Q

what are the disadvantages of artificial cloning in animals?

A 
diseases/pests
little regard for animal welfare
poor success rate of adult cell cloning
more expensive than conventional breeding
cloned animals may be less healthy 
ethical issues -use of embryos
doesn't help increase genetic diversity
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54
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

the use of living organisms or parts of them in industrial processes.

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55
Q

what’s the oldest example of biotechnology?

A

production of beer or ale

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56
Q

what bacterium was used to produce acetone?

A

clostridium acetobutylicum

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57
Q

why was acetone needed in ww1?

A

to make explosives

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58
Q

what is S.cerivisiae used to make?

A

ethanol in beer and wine

CO2 used to make bread rise

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59
Q

what microorganism makes lactic acid used to make yogurt and cheese?

A

lactobacillus bacteria

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60
Q

what microorganism makes mycoprotein?

A

fusarium venenatum fungus

61
Q

what is mycoprotein?

A

a filamentous fungus protein (SCP-singe celled protein) used to make vegetarian food

62
Q

what microorganism makes soya?

A

yeast or aspergillus (fungi)

63
Q

what microorganism makes penicillin ?

A

penicillum fungus

64
Q

what microorganism makes protease and lipase?

A

bacteria eg bacillus licheniformis

65
Q

what microorganism makes sucrase used to digest sugar to make food sweetener ?

A

yeast and aspergillus species

66
Q

what microorganism makes amylase to produce syrup?

A

A.oryzae (fungi)

67
Q

what microorganism makes protease to tenderise meat?

A

aspergillus species

68
Q

what microorganism makes citric acid?

A

Aspergillus niger fungus

69
Q

what is citric acid used for?

A

food preservative (E330)

70
Q

so overall, what does aspergillus do?

A 
make soya
makes pectinase
makes sucrase
makes protease
makes citric acid
71
Q

what microorganism makes pectinase?

A

aspergillus niger

72
Q

what does pectinase do?

A

extracts juice from fruit

73
Q

what’s the basic process of making yoghurt?

A

bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid

lactic acid denatures milk protein so it coagulates.

74
Q

which 2 bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid in the process of making yoghurt?

A

lactobacillus bulgaricus

streptococcus thermophillus

75
Q

what’s the role of bacteria in making yoghurt (apart from making lactic acid)?

A

they partially digest milk making it easy for us to digest

fermentation produces flavours characteristic of yoghurt

76
Q

what may be added to yoghurt?

A

probiotics

77
Q

what is milk usually pretreated with in the making of cheese?

A

a culture of lactobacillus bacteria

78
Q

what are the basic steps of making cheese?

A

1) milk is acidified
2) mixed with rennet
3) coagulates milk protein
4) resulting solid=curd-curds separated from whey
5) pressed into moulds

79
Q

what does rennet contain?

A

the enzyme rennin (chymosin)

80
Q

what is the milk protein called?

A

casein

81
Q

what does rennin need to coagulate the milk protein?

A

Ca2+ ions

82
Q

what keeps the casein in solution?

A

kappa-casein

83
Q

what is the effect of kappa-casein being broken down?

A

makes casein insoluble

84
Q

what is the role of Ca2+ in cheese production?

A

casein precipitated by Ca2+s which bind the molecules together

85
Q

how is curd separated from whey?

A

cutting, stirring, heating

86
Q

what are the 3 key steps of breadmaking?

A

1) mixing
2) proving/fermenting
3) cooking

87
Q

what does the mixing step of making bread involve?

A

kneading to produce dough

88
Q

what does the proving step of making bread involve?

A

dough left in a warm place for up to 3 hours while the yeast anaerobically respires, producing c02 bubbles causing dough to rise

89
Q

why is the cooking stage of making bread important?

A

any alcohol made evaporates

90
Q

why are grapes used in wine?

A

naturally have yeasts in their skin +contain sugars fructose and glucose so when crushed yeast uses these sugars to produce alcohol and co2.

91
Q

what does the brewing of beer or ale involve?

A

barley grains which are malted (made to germinate then dried) . as the grain germinates it converts starch to maltose which is respired by the yeast.

92
Q

what is the potential sustainable future of creating SCP ?

A

using microorganisms (like kluyveromyces, scytlalidium, or candida) to produce protein w a similiar amino acid profile to animal and plant protein-can grow on almost any organic substrate including wast products like whey.

93
Q

what are the advantages of using microorganisms to make SCP?

A 
faster
high protein
production can be increased or decreased (demand)
animal welfare
healthy
easy GM to alter protein
remove waste 
independent of seasons
not much land
94
Q

what are the disadvantages of using microorganisms to make SCP?

A 
distaste
isolation of protein
purification
remove nucleic acids
deficient in methionine
infection
palatability
95
Q

what conditions must be controlled in a fermenter?

A 
temperature
nutrients
o2 availability
pH
conc of producr
96
Q

why does temp need to be controlled in a fermenter?

A

too hot=denaturing of enzymes

too cold=limited growth

97
Q

why does o2 need to be controlled in a fermenter?

A

most microorganisms respire aerobically

98
Q

what must happen before using a fermenter?

A

must be sterilised using superheated steam.

99
Q

in a fermenter what controls pressure?

A

pressure vent prevents any gas buildup

100
Q

in a fermenter what controls o2?

A

sterile air comes in from the air inlet which contains o2.

101
Q

in a fermenter what regulates temperature?

A

water jacket

102
Q

what does the electric probe do in a fermenter (zzzzzzz)

A

measures o2, pH, and temp levels

103
Q

how does the air get into the mixture in a fermenter?

A

through air outlets -air bubbles out from rings mixing with mixture (sparging)

104
Q

what are primary metabolites?

A

products synthesised by microorganism during normal metabolism

105
Q

what does continuous culture do??

A

keeps microorganism growing at specific growth rate

106
Q

what are secondary metabolites?

A

produced only when cells are placed under stress

107
Q

what is asepsis?

A

ensuring sterile conditions are maintained.

108
Q

if the conditions in a fermenter weren’t aseptic, what would the unwanted microorganisms do?

A

compete w wanted ones for nutrients and space
reduce yield of useful products
spoil product
produce toxic chemicals

109
Q

what type of metabolite is penicillin?

A

secondary

110
Q

what type of culture is penicillin manufactured by?

A

batch

111
Q

how was synthetic human insulin created?

A

GM bacteria

112
Q

how was bacteria GM to produce insulin?

A

gene for human insulin combined w plasmid to act as vector-gene could be inserted into e.coli

113
Q

what type of culture is insulin manufactured by?

A

continuous

114
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

the use of microorganisms to clean soil and underground water on polluted sites.

115
Q

what does bioremediation involve?

A

stimulating growth of suitable microbes that use contaminants as food source.

116
Q

wHaT aRe tHe aDvAnTages of bioremediation?

A

natural
less labour
treatment in situ
low waste

117
Q

what is bioremediation not useful for?

A

heavy metals like lead and cadmium

118
Q

what is agar?

A

polysaccharide used to thicken medium into a gel

119
Q

microorganisms are usually grown in what?

A

broth or agar

120
Q

growing microorganisms on agar involves which 3 main steps?

A

1) sterilisation
2) inoculation
3) incubation

121
Q

how is the growth medium sterilised?

A

heated in an autoclave

122
Q

what are the three methods of inoculation?

A

streaking
seeding
spreading
haahhahaa

123
Q

what does streaking involve?

A

wire inoculating loop used to transfer a drop of liquid medium onto surface of agar, then loop dragged across surface into a streak

124
Q

what can a liquid broth be used for?

A

to measure the growth rate of a microorganism population

125
Q

what is a closed culture?

A

culture which has no exchange of nutrients or gases with the external environment

126
Q

in the early part of population growth how quickly does the population grow and why?

A

slowly- small pop+they’re adjusting to their new environment

127
Q

what are the stages of growth of microorganisms in a closed culture?

A

lag phase
log (exponential) phase
stationary phase
death (decline) phase

128
Q

what happens during the log phase?

A

organisms have adjusted to their environments and grow and reproduce quickly

129
Q

what happen during the stationary phase?

A

death rate=reproductive rate

organisms use up nutrients and produce waste

130
Q

what is an immobilised enzyme?

A

an enzyme that’s held in place and not free to diffuse through the solution

131
Q

wHaT aRe the aDvAnTaGeS of immobilised enzymes?

A

lower extraction costs
easily reused
continuous process easier
protects enzymes from extreme conditions

132
Q

wHaT aRe tHe diSadVaNtAgEs of immobilised enzymes?

A

setting up = expensive

slower-enzymes less active

133
Q

what are the methods used to immobilise enzymes?

A

adsorption
covalent bonding
entrapment
membrane separation

134
Q

what does glucose isomerase/xylose isomerase do?

A

converts glucose to fructose

135
Q

what is glucose isomerase/xylose isomerase used for?

A

to produce HFCS (high fructose corn syrup).

136
Q

what does penicillin acylase/penicillin amidase do?

A

makes semi synthetic penicillin.

137
Q

what does lactase do?

A

converts lactose to glucose and galactose.

138
Q

what is lactase used for?

A

producing lactose free milk.

139
Q

what is aminoacylase used for?

A

producing pure L-amino acids by removing the acyl group from the nitrogen of an N-acyl-amino acid.

140
Q

what are L-amino acids used for?

A

pharmaceutical and agrochemical synthesis

food additives

141
Q

what does glucoamylase do?

A

converts dextrins to glucose

142
Q

what processes is glucoamylase used in?

A

converting starch pulp to alcohol-biofuel production

making high fructose corn syrup.

143
Q

what does nitrile hydratase do?

A

converts nitriles to amides.

144
Q

what are the uses of nitrile hydratase?

A

products used in:
treatment of water
paper making
plastics

145
Q

what are some immobilised enzymes used in industrial processes?

A 
glucose isomerase (xylose isomerase)
penicillin amidase (penicillin acylase)
lactase
aminoacylase
glucoamylase
nitrile hydratase
146
Q

WHY WOULDNT U GROW BACTERIA AT 35 DEGREES

A

IT ENCOURAGES THE GROWTH OF HUMAN PATHOGENS.

147
Q

how do bulbs carry out vegetative propagation?

A

new daughter bulbs grow from the lateral bud.

148
Q

WHEN DOING A BACTERIA EXPERIMENT WHY WOULD U HAVE A FLASK W NO BACTERIA IN IT (3 POINTS)

A

TO ACT AS A CONTROL
TO CHECK GROWTH WAS ONLY AFFECTED BY THE INDEPENDENT FACTOR
TO CHECK FOR CONTAMINATION

Biology (25 decks)

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