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Biology > 5.2-kidneys and liver > Flashcards

5.2-kidneys and liver Flashcards

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1
Q

What is excretion?

A

The removal of metabolic waste from the body.

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2
Q

What are the 2 blood supplies of the liver?

A

Hepatic artery

Hepatic portal vein

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3
Q

What does the hepatic artery do?

A

Brings oxygenated blood from the heart, supplying the liver with oxygen for aerobic respiration.

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4
Q

Why is the hepatic portal vein important?

A

Is brings deoxygenated blood from the digestive system to the liver- concentrations of substances will be uncontrolled because they’ve just entered the body trough the digestive system, so may contain toxic compounds which need to have their concentrations adjusted before they circulate the body.

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5
Q

What does blood leave the liver through?

A

The hepatic vein

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6
Q

What does the bile duct do?

A

Carries bile from the liver to the gall bladder

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7
Q

what is metabolic waste?

A

a substance that is produced in excess by the metabolic processes in the cells, it may become toxic.

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8
Q

what is the liver divided into?

A

lobes, which are further divided into lobules.

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9
Q

what is the shape of a lobule?

A

cylindrical

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10
Q

what is a kupffer cell?

A

a specialised macropage

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11
Q

what do kupffer cells do?

A

move about in the sinusoid, yeeting red blood cells (breaking down and recycling them)

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12
Q

what is one of the products of haemoglobin breakdown?

A

bilirubin, one of the bile pigments secreted as part of the bile.

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13
Q

what is at the centre of each lobule?

A

a branch of the hepatic vein known as the intra-lobular vessel

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14
Q

what is the shape of a hepatocyte?

A

simple cuboidal shape with many microvilli

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15
Q

what are the functions of the liver?

A

control of blood glucose, amino acid and lipid levels
synthesis of bile, plasma proteins, cholesterol
synthesis of RBCs in the fetus
storage of vitamins a,d, b12, iron, glycogen
detoxification of drugs and alcohol
breakdown of hormones
destruction of RBCs

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16
Q

where in the liver is glycogen stored?

A

granules in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes

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17
Q

what are 2 enzymes found in the liver that detoxify substances?

A

catalase

cytochrome p450

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18
Q

what does catalase do?

A

converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water

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19
Q

what does cytochrome p450 do?

A

it’s a group of enzymes used to breakdown drugs including cocaine.

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20
Q

what can fatty liver lead to?

A

alcohol related hepatitis

cirrhosis

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21
Q

what causes fatty liver?

A

if the liver has to detoxify too much alcohol it uses up its stores of NAD and has insufficient left to deal with fatty acids, because NAD is also required to breakdown fatty acids for use in respiration. these fatty acids are converted back to lipids and stored as fat in the hepatocytes.

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22
Q

what is the equation for deamination?

A

amino acid + oxygen–> keto acid + ammonia

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23
Q

why must ammonia not be allowed to accumulate?

A

it’s v soluble and highly toxic

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24
Q

what is the cortex?

A

the outer region of the kidney

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25
Q

what is the medulla?

A

the inner region of the kidney

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26
Q

what is the pelvis?

A

the white centre part that leads into the ureter

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27
Q

what is ultrafiltration?

A

filtration of the blood at a molecular level under pressure

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28
Q

what is osmoregulation?

A

the control of water potential in the body.

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29
Q

how do we gain water?

A

drinking
respiration
food

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30
Q

how do we lose water?

A

breathing
faesces
urine
sweat

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31
Q

what detects water potential in blood?

A

osmoreceptors in hypothalamus

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32
Q

what releases ADH?

A

posterior pituitary

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33
Q

what is the effect of ADH on the collecting duct?

A

makes walls more permeable

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34
Q

what does increase of ADH do to water potential of blood?

A

increases it

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35
Q

what effect does ADH have on water potential of urine?

A

lower-more concentrated urine.

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36
Q

what are the excretory organs?

A

lungs
liver
skin
kidneys

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37
Q

what are inter-lobular vessels?

A

branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein

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38
Q

what is the passage of blood through the liver?

A

hepatic artery/hepatic portal vein–>branched (inter-lobular vessel) –>sinusoid –>branch of hepatic vein (intra-lobular vessel) –> hepatic vein

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39
Q

where is bile released?

A

into the bile canaliculi

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40
Q

what do the bile canaliculi join together to form?

A

the bile duct

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41
Q

what are some metabolic functions of a hepatocyte?

A

protein synthesis
transformation and storage of carbohydrates
synthesis of cholesterol and bile salts
detoxification

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42
Q

which enzyme catalyses the breakdown of alcohol initially?

A

ethanol dehydrogenase

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43
Q

what does alcohol get turned into when detoxified?

A

ethanal–ethanoic acid–acetyl coenzyme A

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44
Q

what happens to the H atoms that leave alcohol when it gets oxidised?

A

combine with NAD to form reduced NAD

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45
Q

what is the summary equation for the ornithine cycle?

A

ammonia + C02 –> urea + water

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46
Q

what is a section of the kidney called?

A

nephron

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47
Q

blood comes into the glomerulus through the…

A

afferent arteriole

48
Q

blood leaves the glomerulus through the…

A

efferent arteriole

49
Q

whats wider the afferent or efferent arteriole?

A

afferent

50
Q

how is the endothelium of the capillary adapted to its function in the bowmans capsule?

A

narrow gaps between endothelial cells

endothelial cells also contain pores called fenestrations

51
Q

whats the basements membrane of the bowman’s capsule made of?

A

fine mesh of collagen fibres and glycoproteins

52
Q

what’s the effect of the basement membrane of the bowman’s capsule?

A

molecules with an Mr of over 69000 cant go through

53
Q

what are the epithelial cells of the bowman’s capsule called?

A

podocytes

54
Q

what’s the shape of a podocyte?

A

many finger-like projections, called major processes. on each major process there’s a minor process, or foot process.

55
Q

what do the minor processes do?

A

hold the epithelial cells away from the endothelium of the capillary, ensuring there are gaps between the cells so fluid from the glomerulus can pass between them into the lumen of the bowman’s capsule.

56
Q

overall, what are the adaptations of the bowman’s capsule and glomerulus that help them carry out their function?

A 
afferent arteriole > efferent arteriole
fenestrations
gaps between endothelial cells
basement membrane
podocytes
57
Q

what, in the blood, goes into the glomerular filtrate?

A

amino acids
glucose
urea
mineral ions

58
Q

what happens to water potential in the descending loop of henle?

A

decreased

59
Q

what happens to water potential in the ascending loop of henle?

A

increased

60
Q

what happens to water potential in the collecting duct?

A

decreased

61
Q

how are the cells lining the proximal convoluted tubule adapted for reabsorption?

A

membrane in contact w tubule fluid highly folded into microvilli, other membrane also folded
cell membrane has cotransport protiens
membrane next to capillary has Na+/K+ pump
cytoplasm has many mitochondria

62
Q

why are microvilli on the proximal convoluted tubule important?

A

they increase surface area for reabsorption

63
Q

what gets pumped out of the cells lining the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

sodium

64
Q

what gets pumped into the cells lining the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

potassium

65
Q

how are glucose and amino acids selectively reabsorbed?

A

1) Na+ actively pumped out of lining cell
2) conc gradient of Na+ forms
3) Na+ from other side diffuse in through cotransport protein, carrying glucose or amino acid with it.
4) water moves into cell by osmosis
5) substances move through to blood and water follows.

66
Q

what is the arrangement of the loop of Henle known as?

A

a hairpin countercurrent multiplier system

67
Q

the upper portion of the ascending limb of the loop of henle is…

A

impermeable to water.

68
Q

what happens to water potential as you go down the loop of henle?

A

becomes more negative.

69
Q

what happens in the ascending loop of henle?

A

mineral ions leave. at the bottom this happens by diffusion, at the top this happens by active transport.

70
Q

on a cool day or a day where you’ve drunk a lot of water and don’t need to conserve that much, what happens to the walls of the collecting duct?

A

become less permeable-less water is reabsorbed.

71
Q

what are the water permeable channels called in the collecting duct wall?

A

aquaporins

72
Q

what’s it called when the cell surface membrane folds inwards?

A

it invaginates

hahahahhaaha

73
Q

how does adh work in the collecting duct?

A

detected by cell surface receptors
causes a chain of enzyme controlled reactions inside cell
end result of reactions is to cause vesicles containing aquaporins to fuse to membrane
more water can be reabsorbed.

74
Q

what happens in the walls of the collecting duct when adh levels fall?

A

call membrane invaginates to create new vesicles that remove aquaporins from membrane.

75
Q

what type of cell produce and release adh?

A

neurosecretory cells (specialised neurones)

76
Q

where is adh stored?

A

vesicles in the terminal bulb of the posterior pituatary

77
Q

what is the glomerular filtrate rate (GFR)?

A

the rate at which fluid enters the nephrons.

78
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies?

A

antibodies made from 1 type of cell, specific to one complimentary molecule.

79
Q

what is renal dialysis?

A

a mechanism used to artificially regulate the concentrations of solutes in the blood.

80
Q

how can kidney function be assessed?

A

estimating GFR

analysing urine for proteins

81
Q

what is a normal GFR value?

A

90-120 cm3/min

82
Q

what GFR figure indicates chronic kidney disease?

A

below 60cm3/min

83
Q

what GFR figure indicates kidney failure?

A

below 15cm3/min

84
Q

what are possible causes of kidney failure?

A

diabetes mellitus
heart disease
hypertension
infection

85
Q

what are the main treatments for kidney failure?

A

renal dialysis

kidney transplant

86
Q

what are the 2 types of renal dialysis?

A

haemodialysis

peritoneal dialysis

87
Q

what is added in haemodialysis to reduce clotting?

A

heparin

88
Q

what happens during haemodialysis?

A

blood is passed into a machine containing an artificial dialysis membrane. the artificial capillaries are surrounded by dialysis fluid flowing the opposite way (countercurrent flow).

89
Q

what has to happen before the blood from haemodialysis is returned to the body?

A

remove any bubbles

90
Q

how often and where is haemodialysis usually done?

A

2-3 times a week, a few hours a session, at a clinic.

91
Q

what is the peritoneum?

A

abdominal membrane

92
Q

what happens during PD?

A

dialysis membrane is the peritoneum. a permanent tube is implanted in the abdomen via surgery . dialysis solution is poured through the tube, filling the space between the abdominal wall and organs.

93
Q

how long does the dialysis fluid stay in the body during PD?

A

several hours

94
Q

when can PD be carried out?

A

home or work

95
Q

what is PD sometimes called?

A

ambulatory dialysis (ambulatory=adapted to walking around)

96
Q

what must dialysis be combined with?

A

carefully monitored diet.

97
Q

what are the advantages of kidney transplants?

A

freedom fro time-consuming renal dialysis
feeling physically fitter
improved QOL, able to travel
improved self image-no longer chronically ill

98
Q

what are the disadvantages of kidney transplants?

A

need to take immunosuppressant drugs
need for major surgery under general anaesthetic
need for regular checks for signs of rejection
side effects of immunosuppresant drugs

99
Q

what are some side effects of immunosuppresant drugs?

A

fluid retention
high blood pressure
susceptibility to infections

100
Q

what useful things can urine be tested for?

A 
glucose
alcohol-levels in drivers
recreational drugs
hCG
anabolic steroids-improper use in sport
101
Q

what would glucose in the urine suggest?

A

diabetes

102
Q

how long does marijuana stay in the urine after a single use?

A

7 days

103
Q

what hormone is released once a human embryo is implanted in the uterine lining?

A

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

104
Q

what enzyme catalyses ethanal turning into ethanoic acid in the liver?

A

ethanal dehydrogenase

105
Q

what are the three molecules that make up the cycle part of the ornithine cycle (the intermediates)?

A

citrulline-arginine-ornithine

106
Q

what happens in the descending loop of henle?

A

Na+ and Cl- ions diffuse in and water osmoseseses out

107
Q

what is the path the blood takes during haemodialysis?

A

body-arterial pressure monitor-blood pump-heparin pump-dialyser inflow pressure monitor-dialyser-venous pressure monitor-air detector clamp-body

108
Q

what’s the purpose of the heparin pump?

A

to prevent clotting

109
Q

what do pregnancy test kits use?

A

monoclonal antibodies which bind to hCG in urine

110
Q

what does testing for anabolic steroids involve?

A

analysing a urine sample in a lab using gas chromatography

111
Q

WHAT IS THE FATTER VESSEL ENTERING THE LIVER

A

THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN

112
Q

WHATS THE THINNER VESSEL ENTERING THE LIVER

A

HEPATIC ARTERY

113
Q

WHAT DOES THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN LOOK LIKE COMING INTO THE LIVER

A

BRANCHED

FATTER

114
Q

what happens to bile?

A

stored in gallbladder, released into duodenum when needed, bile salts+acids mostly reabsorbed into body

115
Q

surface area of a sphere???

A

4πr squared

116
Q

volume of a sphere??

A

4/3πr cubed

117
Q

why are podocytes unable to undergo mitosis apparently?

A

already are , differentiated so cannot divide
are in G0 phase of cell cycle
shape is (too) irregular / asymmetrical so cannot divide
cytoskeleton cannot function / spindle (fibres) cannot form
(if mitosis occurred) it would alter , number / size ,
of the , gaps / fenestrations
it would alter an aspect of ultrafiltration

Biology (25 decks)

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