4.1-diseased like me Flashcards
Name 2 bacteria caused diseases in animals
TB
Bacterial meningitis
Name a bacteria caused disease in plants
Ring rot
Name two animal viral diseases
Influenza
HIV/AIDS
Name a plant virus
Tobacco mosaic virus
Name two animal fungi diseases
Ringworm (cattle)
Athletes foot
Name a plant fungi infection
Black sigatoka (bananas )
Name a plant protoctista disease
Blight (tomatoes and potatoes )
Name a animal protoctista disease
Malaria
What are the symptoms of bacterial meningitis ?
Infection of the meninges- the membranes that surround the spinal cord - these become swollen and may cause damage to the brain and nerves
What are the symptoms of ring rot ?
Ring of decay in the vascular tissue of a potato tuber or tomato+ leaf wilting
What’s a rhizome ?
a continuously growing horizontal underground stem
What’s a tuber?
A v thickened underground part of a stem or rhizome
What does flu do ?
Attacks respiratory system and causes muscle pains and headaches
What does tobacco mosaic virus cause ?
Mottling and discolouration of leaves
What does black Sigatoka do?
Causes leaf spots on banana plants reducing yield
What are the symptoms of ringworm ?
Growth of fungus in skin with spore cases erupting through skin to cause rash
Where do fungi often live in plants ?
Vascular tissue
What kingdom are bacteria in?
Prokaryotae ( they’re prokaryotes)
What is a vector ?
A organism that carries a pathogen from one host to another
What is indirect transmission
Passing a pathogen from host to new host via a vector
What social factors affect transmission??
1) overcrowding
2) poor ventilation
3) poor health (duh)
4) poor diet
4) homelessness
6) migration
I can’t count
How does indirect transmission of plant pathogens often occur ?
Insect attack - spores of bacteria become attached to burrowing insect, which attaches infected plant then uninflected plant ( its the vector )
What chemicals protect plants against pathogens ?
1) terpenoids
2) phenols
3) alkaloids
4) defensive proteins (defensins)
5) hydrolytic enzymes
What are terpenoids ?
Range of essential oils that have antibacterial and antifunghal properties
IF YOU SEE THIS KEEP GOING
otherwise u fail
What do phenols do?
Have antibiotic and antifunghal properties.
Tannins found in bark inhibit attack by insects
What are alkaloids ?
Nitrogen containing compounds e.g. Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, morphine, solanine.
What do alkaloids do?
Give bitter taste to stop herbivores feeding, inhibit or activate enzyme pathways,some inhibit protein synthesis.
What are defensins?
Small cysteine- rich proteins- have broad antimicrobial activity
Where are hydrolytic enzymes found?
In spaces between cells
What are 3 examples of hydrolytic enzymes ?
1) chitinase
2) glucanases
3) lysosomes
What do chitinases do?
Break down chitin found in cell walls
What do glucanases do ?
Hydrolyse glycosidic bonds in glucans
What can lysosomes do?
Degrade bacterial cell walls
What is necrosis ?
Deliberate cell suicide
Why does necrosis happen?
By killing cells surrounding infection, plant can limit pathogen’s access to water+nutrients to stop it further spreading
What causes necrosis ?
Intracellular enzymes activated by injury, which destroy damaged cells and produce brown spots in leaves or dieback
What is a canker?
Sunken necrotic lesion in woody tissue, e.g. Main stem or branch
What does a canker cause ?
Death of cambium tissue
What are the physical defences of a plant?
- cell wall: lignin, cellulose (physical and chemical)
- waxy cuticles
- bark
- stomata closure
- callose
- Tylose
- oxidative bursts
What is tylose and how does it protect against pathogens ?
A tylose is a balloon like swelling or protection that fills the xylem vessel- when a tylose is fully formed it plugs the vessel+the vessel can no longer carry water preventing spread of pathogens thorough the heartwood
What does tylose also contain
Chemicals e.g. Terpenes that are toxic to pathogens
What cell has a multi lobed nucleus ?
Neutrophil
What are the 3 types of antibody?
1) opsonins
2) agglutinins
3) anti-toxins
Why do opsonins do?
Bind to antigens on pathogen then act as binding sites for phagocytic cells so they can more easily destroy the pathogen
What do agglutinins do?
By using each binding air to bind to a different pathogen they crosslink pathogens onto a big clump which is non infective and easily phagocytosed
What do antitoxins do?
Bind to molecules released by pathogens , makes the toxic ones harmless
What 4 types of microbes cause disease ?
Virus
Fungi
Bacteria
Protoctista
What can t lymphocytes differentiate into ?
T killer
T memory
T regulator
T helper
What can b lymphocytes differentiate into ?
Plasma calls
B memory cells
What is another word for clonal expansion ?
Proliferation
What do t killer cells differentiate into ?
Undergo apoptosis or memory T cells
What do t helper cells do ?
Release interleukins/ cytokines which stimulate T killer cells and B cells to multiply.
What do plasma cells do ?
Manufacture and release antibodies
What is an antibody made of ?
2 light and 2 heavy polypeptide chains
What does the hinge region of the antibody do ?
Allows flexibility so molecule can grip more than 1 antigen
What are the 5 types of vaccine ?
1) attenuated
2) inactivated
3) subunit
4) whole live organisms of a similar, less harmful micro organism
5) toxoid
What is an attenuated vaccine and a example ?
Live vaccine which has had its virulence reduced, e.g. Measles
What is an inactivated vaccine and an example ?
Dead pathogen, e.g. Polio
What is a subunit vaccine and a example ?
An injection of antigens only, e.g. Hepatitis B
What is a toxoid vaccine and an example ?
Harmless version of a toxin, e.g. Tetanus
What is ring vaccination?
Vaccinating all people in the immediate vicinity of new case.
When is ring vaccination used?
When a new case of disease is reported
Livestock disease worldwide
What is a pandemic ?
A disease that spreads across multiple countries.
What is herd vaccination ?
When most of the population is immunised, so the spread of contagious disease is contained.
WHat are the 4 types of immunity ?
Active
Passive
Artificial
Natural
What is active immunity ?
When the immune system is activated and antibodies are produced
What is passive immunity ?
Antibodies are provided from another source.
What is artificial immunity ?
Immunity provided through medical intervention
active natural immunity ?
Infection
Active artificial immunity ?
Vaccine
Passive natural immunity ?
Maternal antibodies
Passive artificial antibodies ?
Monoclonal antibodies
What do plasma cells do ?
Manufacture and release antibodies
What is an antibody made of ?
2 light and 2 heavy polypeptide chains
What does the hinge region of the antibody do ?
Allows flexibility so molecule can grip more than 1 antigen
What are the 5 types of vaccine ?
1) attenuated
2) inactivated
3) subunit
4) whole live organisms of a similar, less harmful micro organism
5) toxoid
What is an attenuated vaccine and a example ?
Live vaccine which has had its virulence reduced, e.g. Measles
What is an inactivated vaccine and an example ?
Dead pathogen, e.g. Polio
What is a subunit vaccine and a example ?
An injection of antigens only, e.g. Hepatitis B
What is a toxoid vaccine and an example ?
Harmless version of a toxin, e.g. Tetanus
What is ring vaccination?
Vaccinating all people in the immediate vicinity of new case.
When is ring vaccination used?
When a new case of disease is reported
Livestock disease worldwide
What is a pandemic ?
A disease that spreads across multiple countries.
What is herd vaccination ?
When most of the population is immunised, so the spread of contagious disease is contained.
WHat are the 4 types of immunity ?
Active
Passive
Artificial
Natural
What is active immunity ?
When the immune system is activated and antibodies are produced
What is passive immunity ?
Antibodies are provided from another source.
What is artificial immunity ?
Immunity provided through medical intervention
active natural immunity ?
Infection
Active artificial immunity ?
Vaccine
Passive natural immunity ?
Maternal antibodies
Passive artificial antibodies ?
Monoclonal antibodies
Why are new drugs needed ?
- new diseases are emerging
- there are still many diseases for which there are no effective treatments
- some antibiotic treatments are becoming less effective.
What are some possible sources of medicines ?
- accidental discovery
- observation of wildlife
- research into disease causing mechanisms
- personalised medicine
- synthetic biology
- traditional remedies
What are some drugs based on traditional medicines ?
- morphine-opium from poppies used as an anaesthetic.
- aspirin
- ibuprofen
What is personalised medicine ?
The development of designer medicines for individuals.
how do plant pathogens get transmitted directly?
1) pathogens present in soil that will enter roots-this is made worse by root damage by burrowing animals, replanting, or storms.
2) many fungi produce spores, which can be carried in the wind.
3) pathogens in leaves distributed when leaves shed and carry pathogen back to soil where it can infect another plant.
4) pathogens enter fruit and seeds and distributed with seeds so offspring are also infected.
what are the primary non specific defenses against pathogens in animals?
blood clotting
mucous membranes
what is the process of a blood clot?
1) damage to blood vessel wall exposes collagen and releases clotting factors
2) platelets bind to collagen and release clotting factors.
3) clotting factors activate an enzyme cascade to form first a temporary platelet plug, then a clot.
4) once clot forms, it dries to form a scab, the scab shrinks as it dries, drawing the sides of the cut together, this forms a temporary seal under which the skin is repaired.
what is the function of the constant region of the antibody?
means phagocytes can easily bind to the antibody and destroy the pathogen by phagocytosis.
why does the antibody have more than 1 variable region?
allows agglutination-attachment to more than 1 antigen.
how is the structure of the neutrophil specialised to its function?
- lots of lysosomes-hydrolytic enzymes can break down pathogen.
- many microfilaments/microtubules-well developed cytoskeleton for endocytosis/phagocytosis and movement of lysosomes.
- many ribosomes, golgi- to make proteins-hydrolytic enzymes for lysosomes.
- many mitochondria-atp for phagocytosis
- many receptors on plasma membrane-detect pathogen.
what is meant by the term health?
- physical, social and mental wellbeing
- good nutrition
- suitably housed
- if you have a disease
what factors increase risk of a contagious disease?
smoking, alcoholism, poor diet (only 1 lifestyle mark)
not vaccinated against disease
poor ventilation
overcrowding
close contact w people who live where disease is common/close contact w people with the disease
poor immune system/ autoimmune disease
what increases risk of tb?
consumption of milk/beef in developing countries.
how do cytokines work?
bind to specific receptors on the membranes of b lymphocytes that are complementary to the shape of the cytokine and stimulate mitosis.
who would the government consider vulnerable for disease?
elderly pregnant women young children chronic diseases health workers
what are ribosomes made of?
rRNA
what is the role of memory cells?
1) memory cells recognise pathogen
2) clonal expansion
3) memory cells form plasma cells
4) plasma cells make antibodies
5) memory cells responsible for secondary response- destroy pathogen before symptoms appear
6) they can change to form t cell
what are the advantages of traditional medicine
- plants already identified as likely to have medicinal properties
- reduces time and effort in finding plants
- reduces costs
what parasite causes malaria?
plasmodium
where is the parasite that causes malaria found?
in mosquito SALIVA
what cells mature in the thymus?
t cells
b cells don’t!!!
what is the immune response?
the reaction triggered by a foreign ANTIGEN entering the body, involving LYMPHOCYTES/ production of antibodies
what are the differences between viruses + parasites?
- not all parasites cause disease, all viruses cause disease
- parasite gains nutrition/energy from host, viruses don’t.
- virus takes over DNA/ genetic information, parasites don’t.
what is neutralisation?
when anti toxins destroy toxins produced by pathogens
NEVER SAY (parasites)
LIVE OFF
what 5 key groups should be immunised?
1) people with chronic/ autoimmune diseases-poor health already, unable to produce antibodies
2) young
3) elderly
4) pregnant women-antibodies can cross placenta, embryo has undeveloped immune system
5) health workers- increased risk of disease
what are the economic benefits of vaccination?
- days lost at work
- costs more to deal w illness than vaccine
- health service unable to cope
- disease would be eliminated
what is agglutination?
when antibodies attach to antigens of pathogens and join them together, creating a clump of pathogens which are more easily, and LIKELY, to be phagocytosed.
why do people choose to not be vaccinated?
- cba
- scared of side effects
- media scare stories
- cost implication
- allergic to vaccine
- fear of needles
- religious reasons
why are phagocytes able to pass through the blood into the tissue fluid?
- lobed/narrow nucleus
- cells change shape-can squeeze through pores in walls of capillaries
- histamine makes endothelium/capillary walls leaky.
full mark answer for phagocytosis?
pathogen engulfed by cytoplasm-phagocytosis/endocytosis. cytoskeleton involved in endocytosis + movement of vesicles.
PHAGOSOME formed
phagosome fuses w lysosome
phagolysosome formed.
lysosome contains powerful hydrolytic enzymes which break down pathogen into…
amino acid/sugar/fatty acid/glycerol
products absorbed into cytoplasm, unwanted products removed by exocytosis.
what is the infective agent that causes tb?
M. tuberculosis
why are levels of disease high in low income groups?
- no access to good medical care
- poor health/immune system-DONT SAY HYGEINE
- poor diet
- overcrowded
- homelessness
- poor ventilation
why don’t bacteria have an immune system?
they’re unicellular, only multicellular organisms have an immune system
