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Biology > 5.5 Plant and Animal Respsones > Flashcards

5.5 Plant and Animal Respsones Flashcards

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1
Q

Give 4 types of tropisms.

A
  • phototropism
  • geotropism
  • thigmotropism
  • chemotropism
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2
Q

Describe phototropism.

A

Shoots growing towards the light

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3
Q

Describe geotropism.

A

Roots growing towards the pull of gravity.

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4
Q

Describe thigmotropism.

A

Shoots winding around a structure or other plants to gain support.

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5
Q

Describe chemotropism.

A

When pollen tubes grow downwards, attracted by chemicals in the ovary.

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6
Q

What is a tropic response?

A

A directional growth response.

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7
Q

What is a nastic response?

A

A non-directional growth response.

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8
Q

What is the difference between a positive tropism and a negative tropism?

A

A positive tropism is when a plant responds towards the stimulus but in a negative tropism the plant responds away from the stimulus.

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9
Q

What are 3 chemical plant responses?

A
  • tannins
  • pheromones
  • alkaloids
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10
Q

What are tannins?

A

Phenol compounds in the upper epidermis that are toxic to herbivores and microorganisms.

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11
Q

What are alkaloids?

A

Chemicals derived from amino acids in the tips, stems and roots that make the plant taste bitter to animals.

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12
Q

What are pheromones?

A

Chemicals released by one individual that can effect the behaviour of others.

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13
Q

What are auxins?

A

A family of plant hormones responsible for growth.

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14
Q

Describe apical dominance.

A

When growth from the apical (top) bud inhibits the growth of the lateral buds.

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15
Q

Describe the effects of high auxin levels.

A

High rates of apical growth and low rates of lateral growth.

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16
Q

Describe the effects of low auxin levels.

A

High rates of lateral growth and low rates of apical growth.

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17
Q

What other hormone does high levels of auxins promote?

A

Abscisic acid.

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18
Q

What is the function of abscisic acid?

A

To inhibit lateral growth.

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19
Q

What hormone follows auxins around the plant?

A

Cytokinins

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20
Q

What is the function of cytokinins?

A

To promote all bud growth.

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21
Q

What following events occur when the plant tip stays intact?

A
  • high auxin levels so auxins are in the apical bud
  • high abscisic acid levels
  • cytokinins follow auxin to the apical bud
  • high apical bud growth and low lateral bud growth
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22
Q

What following events occur when the plant tip is cut off

A
  • lower auxin levels so auxins are spread out
  • cytokinins are therefore also more spread out
  • lower abscisic acid levels
  • high lateral bud growth and low apical bud growth
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23
Q

What are gibberellins?

A

Plant hormones that cause seed germination and stem elongation.

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24
Q

What are the two subsystems of the human nervous system?

A

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

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25
Q

What is the central nervous system made up of?

A

The brain and spinal cord

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26
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system made up of?

A

All of the other nerves in the body not in the brain or spinal cord

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27
Q

What are nerve cells also called?

A

Neurones

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28
Q

What are the 3 types of nerves?

A

Sensory
Relay
Motor

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29
Q

What two categories of nervous systems are there?

A

Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous system

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30
Q

What is the function of the somatic nervous system?

A

For the control of voluntary movements.

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31
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

For involuntary functions and movements.

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32
Q

What are the two types of autonomic nervous system

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

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33
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system control?

A

The release of adrenaline during the ‘fight or flight response’.

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34
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A

The largest part of the brain that controls voluntary actions, conscious thought, vision and speech (an others)

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35
Q

What connects the two cerebral hemispheres?

A

The corpus callosum.

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36
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

Part at the back of the brain that controls muscle coordination and movement.

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37
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

The part at the base of the brain that controls involuntary actions such as heart and breathing rates.

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38
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Area in the middle of the brain just above the pituitary gland that monitors blood and helps maintain homeostasis.

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39
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

At the bottom of the brain below the hypothalamus. It releases a range of hormones. It is divided into the anterior and posterior pituitary.

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40
Q

What are the 4 lobes in the brain?

A

Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe

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41
Q

What is the sequence that causes a reflex action?

A 
Stimulus
Receptor
Coordinator (either brain or spinal cord)
Effector
Response
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42
Q

What type of neurone detects the stimulus?

A

Sensory Neurone

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43
Q

What type of neurone carries an impulse to the effector?

A

Motor Neurone

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44
Q

Name a reflex that doesn’t use relay neurones?

A

The knee jerk reflex

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45
Q

What is the coordinator of the knee jerk reflex?

A

The spinal cord

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46
Q

What causes the blinking reflex

A

Something travelling towards the eye or contacting the cornea?

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47
Q

What is the coordinator of the blinking reflex?

A

The brain

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48
Q

Why cant adrenaline enter a cell?

A

It is a peptide hormone so is not lipid soluble

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49
Q

Describe the mechanism of adrenaline action?

A
  • adrenaline binds to the adrenaline receptors on the plasma membrane
  • this stimulates the G protein which activates the enzyme adenyl cyclase
  • adenyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP (cyclic adenine monophosphate)
  • cAMP is the second messenger which causes effects in the cell by releasing enzymes to initiate the fight or flight response
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50
Q

What is the contractile unit of skeletal muscle?

A

Myofibril

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51
Q

What are the two protein filaments in a myofibril?

A

Actin and Myosin

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52
Q

Which of the protein filaments in a myofibril is thinner?

A

Actin

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53
Q

Which of the protein filaments in a myofibril come in bundles?

A

Myosin

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54
Q

Which molecules are wound around actin

A

Tropomyosin

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55
Q

What molecules are attached to tropomyosin?

A

Troponin

56
Q

How many polypeptides does a troponin complex have?

A

3

57
Q

What do the 3 polypeptides of troponin bind to?

A
  • one to tropomyosin
  • one to actin
  • one to calcium ions when available
58
Q

What part of the myosin binds to actin

A

The myosin heads

59
Q

What is the sarcomere

A

The distance between the two Z lines on a myofibril

60
Q

What is the I band

A

The part of a sarcomere where there is no myosin

61
Q

What is the H zone

A

The part of the sarcomere where there is no actin

62
Q

What parts of the sarcomere shorten when the the myofibrils contracts

A

The I band and H zone

63
Q

What describes the relationship between actin and myosin

A

They are agnostic so work opposite eachother.

64
Q

Describe how an action potential reaches the muscle fibres

A
  • following the action potential in the motor neurone, the acetylcholine will diffuse across the neuromuscular junction and bind to receptors on the sarcolemma
  • this opens sodium ion channels on the sarcolemma membrane and allows for the depolarisation of the sarcolemma
  • the depolarisation spreads across the sarcolemma and down the transverse tubules to the muscle fibres
65
Q

What is a motor unit

A

When a motor neurone spreads an action potential to many muscle fibres causing greater contraction.

66
Q

Which type of muscle cell is multinucleated

A

Skeletal muscle

67
Q

What is the name of the membrane that surrounds skeletal muscle cells?

A

The sarcolemma

68
Q

What is the name of the cytoplasm of skeletal muscle cells

A

Sarcoplasm

69
Q

What are the sub-units of myofibrils

A

Sarcomeres

70
Q

Where does the action potential travel once it has gone down the transverse tubules

A

Into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

71
Q

What happens when the action potential reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

It releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm

72
Q

What happens when calcium ions enter the sarcoplasm

A

Calcium ions bind to the troponin. This alters the shape of the tropomyosin which pulls the tropomyosin aside and exposes the binding sites on the actin.

73
Q

What happens when the binding site on actin is exposed.

A

Myosin heads bind with the actin and form cross bridge bonds. The myosin heads move backwards, pulling the actin along the myosin. The myosin heads then detach from actin and can form more bonds further up the actin. This causes the muscle to contract

74
Q

What happens in the myofibrils once muscles have contracted

A

Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the muscles relax

75
Q

What provides energy for muscle contraction

A

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and a phosphate group

76
Q

What happens in the power stroke

A

When the myosin head tilts backwards and pulls the actin across the myosin

77
Q

What is released from myosin during the power stroke

A

ADP and a phosphate group

78
Q

What happens after the powerstroke

A

ATP attaches to the myosin head and breaks the cross bridge bonding

79
Q

What happens to ATP when the myosin head returns to its original position

A

The ATP is hydrolysed to release energy

80
Q

What is creatine phosphate

A

The reserve store of phosphate groups in the sarcoplasm to phosphorylate ADP into ATP to provide energy for additional contractions

81
Q

What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscle

A

Voluntary muscle contracts under conscious control but involuntary muscle contraction is unconscious.

82
Q

Which section of the nervous system controls voluntary muscle

A

The somatic nervous system

83
Q

Which section of the nervous system controls involuntary muscle

A

The autonomic nervous system

84
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue

A

Cardiac
Smooth (AKA involuntary)
Skeletal

85
Q

Describe the structure of smooth muscle

A

Tapered, spindle shaped cells that are uni-nucleated and arranged longitudinally.

86
Q

Describe the function of smooth muscle

A

Smooth muscle contracts slowly and regularly in the walls of tubular structures such as blood vessels and the intestines.

87
Q

Describe the structure of cardiac muscle

A

Long fibres that are branched and form cross bridges. The cells are joined by intercalated discs. This increases the speed of action potential contraction.

88
Q

Describe the function of cardiac muscle

A

Myogenically conducting tissue that is controlled by the SAN in order to pump blood around the body

89
Q

Describe the structure of skeletal muscle

A

Multinucleated fibres surrounded by a sarcolemma membrane. Fibres are divided into myofibrils with sarcomere subunits.

90
Q

Describe the function of skeletal muscle

A

Found at joints in the skeleton and it’s contraction allows for the movement of the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are arranged in agnostic pairs where when one contracts, the other relaxes

91
Q

Why is cardiac muscle myogenic

A

It is self stimulating and initiates it’s own heart beat

92
Q

What are the 3 ways heart action can be modified

A
  • heart rate
  • stroke volume
  • force of ventricular systole
93
Q

How is the cardiac output calculated

A

Heart Rate X Stroke Volume

94
Q

Which cardiac muscle has a higher myogenic frequency

A

Atrial muscle has a higher frequency than ventricular muscle

95
Q

What initiates the action potential in the heart

A

The sinoatrial node

96
Q

Where is the sinoatrial node

A

The wall of the right atrium

97
Q

What controls the frequency of the waves of excitation in the heart

A

The cardiovascular centre

98
Q

Where in the brain is the cardiovascular centre

A

Medulla Oblongata

99
Q

Which type of neurones travel from the CVC to the SAN

A

Motor neurones

100
Q

What two nerve are connected from the CVC to the SAN

A

Accelerans nerve and Vagus nerve

101
Q

Which nerve is responsible for increasing the heart rate

A

The accelerans nerve

102
Q

Which nerve is responsible for decreasing the heart rate

A

The vagus nerve

103
Q

What is the neurotransmitter for sympathetic nerves such as the accelerans nerve

A

Noradrenaline

104
Q

What is the neurotransmitter for parasympathetic nerves such as the vagus nerve

A

Acetylcholine

105
Q

What decides when the CVC changes the heart rate

A

When sensory receptors detect a change in the environment and send impulses to the CVC

106
Q

What are stretch receptors

A

Receptors in muscles that send impulses to the CVC when muscles stretch so that extra oxygen is needed

107
Q

What are chemoreceptors

A

Receptors in the carotid arteries, aorta and blood that detect changes in pH.

108
Q

Give 3 examples of the commercial use of auxin

A
  • cuttings are placed in rooting powder with auxin in to encourage root growth
  • treating unpollinated flowers with auxin promotes the growth of seedless fruit
  • used as herbicides for weeds to promote uncontrolled shoot growth so that the stems buckle
109
Q

Give 2 examples of the commercial use of cytokinins

A
  • used in tissue culture to promote bud and shoot growth

- cytokinins will delay leaf senescence

110
Q

Give 3 examples of the commercial use of gibberellins

A
  • used to promote the germination of barley grains in beer production
  • spraying sugar canes with gibberellins will promote stem elongation, this is where the sugar is found so it will increase the yield
  • gibberellin speeds up the formation of seeds in young trees in plant breeding
111
Q

Why can ethene not be directly applied to plants

A

Because ethene is a gas

112
Q

Give 2 examples of the commercial use of ethene

A
  • ethene can promote fruit ripening and fruit drop

- storing fruit in areas without ethene will delay ripening and keep the fruits for longer

113
Q

Which hormones are secreted directly from the hypothalamus

A

Releasing hormones

114
Q

What is the purpose of releasing hormones

A

To stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland

115
Q

What does the corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus cause the release of

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

116
Q

What is the purpose of Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

Stimulates the zona fasciculata to release glucocorticoid hormones such as cortisol which regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates.

117
Q

What does the thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus cause the release of

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

118
Q

What is the purpose of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

It stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine which increases metabolic rates and makes target cells more sensitive to adrenaline

119
Q

What effect does auxin have on cell walls in the stem

A

It increases the stretchiness of the cell walls

120
Q

Describe the mechanism of auxin action on cells in the shoot

A

Auxin promotes the active transport of H+ by ATPase enzymes in the plasma membrane into the cell wall. This will lower the pH in the cell wall which provides an optimum pH for expansin enzymes to loosen the cell wall. The expansins break bonds within the cellulose. This loosening of the cell wall allows the cell to elongate.

121
Q

Describe the effect of auxin in geotropic responses

A

Auxin accumulates on the lower side of the root which inhibits cell elongation. Therefore the top of the root elongates at a greater rate than the bottom of the root so the root grows downwards.

122
Q

Which type of stretch receptors detect changes in blood pressure

A

Stretch receptors in the carotid sinus of the carotid artery

123
Q

Which area of the brain is the largest and organises higher thought processes

A

The cerebrum

124
Q

Which layer of the cerebrum is unmyelinated

A

The cerebral cortex

125
Q

Give some functions of the cerebrum

A
  • vision
  • thought
  • hearing
  • speech
  • memory
126
Q

What connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum

A

The pons

127
Q

How does gibberellin promote stem elongation

A

By promoting cell division and cell elongation (by loosening cell walls by making them more stretchy).

128
Q

How does gibberellin promote seed germination

A

When the seed absorbs water, the embryo releases gibberellin. This gibberellin travels to the aleurone layer in the endosperm region of the seed. It enables the production of amylase which can break down starch into glucose which can be used as a respiratory substrate to provide energy for growth and cell division.

129
Q

Give the stimulus, receptor, coordinator, effector and response of the knee jerk reaction

A

Stimulus - a mallet is used to hit the knee ligament, causing the quadriceps muscle to stretch

Receptor - stretch receptors (called muscle spindles) in the quadriceps muscle detect the stretch

Coordinator - the stretch receptors send an impulse to the spinal cord down a sensory neurone

Effector - The quadriceps muscles then contract

Response - The leg straightens

130
Q

Why is the knee jerk reaction important

A

Allows for balance when moving

131
Q

Why is conscious control unable to override the knee jerk reaction

A

There is no relay neurone involved in the knee jerk reflex so it is rapid. Therefore there is not enough of a delay in the reflex for an inhibitory action potential to be generated.

132
Q

What is most of the brain composed of

A

Non- myelinated relay neurones

133
Q

What colour are non myelinated neurones and what colour are myelinated nuerones

A

Non Myelinated - Grey

Myelinated - White

134
Q

What is a reflex action

A

A response to a change in the environment that does not require any processing or voluntary brain coordination.

135
Q

What is a reflex arc

A

A reflex action where the receptor and effector are in the same place

136
Q

Describe 3 physiological changes following a fight or flight response and explain how each response aids survival

A

Heart Rate Increases - so nutrients and oxygen are delivered to cells at a greater rate so they can increase their rate of respiration to provide more energy

Blood Glucose Levels Increase - provides more respiratory substrates

Arterioles Connected to the Digestive system and skin Constrict - diverts blood away from the digestive system and skin and towards the muscles

Biology (24 decks)

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