3.4: Cultural variations in attachment

Question 1

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks)

Answer 1

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied

Question 2

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
Where was the lowest percent of secure attachment shown?

Answer 2

The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China

Question 3

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest where?

Answer 3

The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain

Question 4

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Where was avoidant attachment more common?

Answer 4

Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany

Question 5

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare where?

Answer 5

Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan

Question 6

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
What?

Answer 6

Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures

Question 7

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

What did Takahashi (1990) find?

Answer 7

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants

Question 8

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where what?

Answer 8

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood

Question 9

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

What did Grossman and Grossman (1991) find?

Answer 9

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached

Question 10

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

What did Tronick et al. (1992) study?

Answer 10

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe

Question 11

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live how?

Answer 11

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups

Question 12

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found what?

Answer 12

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment

Question 13

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

First AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 13

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application

Question 14

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, why?

Answer 14

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative

Question 15

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
Why is this?

Answer 15

This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn

Question 16

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example what, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn?

Answer 16

This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn

Question 17

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
How many of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with how many in collectivist cultures?

Answer 17

27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures

Question 18

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and where were 18 of the studies carried out?

Answer 18

27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America

Question 19

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
What were some of the samples also?

Answer 19

Some of the samples were also very small

Question 20

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
Example

Answer 20

For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden

Question 21

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
What does this suggest?

Answer 21

This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised

Question 22

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

Second AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 22

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment

Question 23

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
Example

Answer 23

For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up

Question 24

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
What does this mean?

Answer 24

This means that temperament may be a confounding variable

Question 25

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so what?

Answer 25

This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation

Question 26

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

Third AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 26

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy

Question 27

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
Where has the method been employed?

Answer 27

The method has been employed in studies all over the world

Question 28

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - What used the Strange Situation, for example?

Answer 28

The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example

Question 29

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, why was the sample biased?

Answer 29

Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric

Question 30

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since what?

Answer 30

Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class

Question 31

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore what?

Answer 31

Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability

Question 32

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability, why?

Answer 32

Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability, as the sample used was not representative of all infants

Question 33

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability, as the sample used was not representative of all infants, but what?

Answer 33

Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability, as the sample used was not representative of all infants, but, because replication was easy, researchers were able to carry out cross-cultural research

Question 34

Discuss research into cultural variations in attachment (16 marks).
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied.
The lowest percent of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain.
Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany, but rare in Israel and Japan.
Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures.

Takahashi (1990) found high levels of resistant attachment in Japanese infants, where mothers rarely leave infants in early childhood.

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely, rather than securely, attached.

Tronick et al. (1992) studied the Efe tribe, who live in extended family groups, and found that even though infants were looked after by several different women, they showed one primary attachment.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research have limited application, because the sample wasn’t representative.
This is because data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis, for example Africa and South American samples, would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn.
27 of the studies took place in individualist cultures, with only 5 in collectivist cultures and 18 of the studies were carried out in America.
Some of the samples were also very small.
For example, there was only one study from the UK and from Sweden.
This suggests that the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research cannot be generalised.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that temperament, the genetically influenced personality of the child, is a more important influence on behaviour in the Strange Situation than attachment.
For example, Kagan suggests that some babies are more anxious than others and that some babies are more sociable than others as a result of their genetic make-up.
This means that temperament may be a confounding variable and so challenges the validity of research using the Strange Situation.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that replication of the controlled conditions in the Strange Situation is easy.
The method has been employed in studies all over the world - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis used the Strange Situation, for example.
Initially, the sample was biased, because it was ethnocentric, since all 106 infants used were American, white and middle-class and the study therefore lacked population validity and generalisability, as the sample used was not representative of all infants, but, because replication was easy, researchers were able to carry out cross-cultural research.
What does this mean?

Answer 34

This means that research using the Strange Situation is reliable