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108 final Flashcards

1
Q

episodic memory

A

a person’s memory for specific events that were personally experienced

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2
Q

semantic memory

A

a mental thesaurus of knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols

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3
Q

Defining Attribute Theory

A

All concepts are defined by their attributes and organized hierarchically

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4
Q

Typicality Effects (problems with Defining Attribute Theory)

A

How prototypical an item is to the category

  • people are slower to say a penguin is a bird than a canary is a bird even though they should be equally represented
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5
Q

Feature Analytical Approach

A

Categorizes items based on their defining features (necessary to the category) and characteristic features (not necessary but typical)

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6
Q

Feature Analytical and typicality effects

A

Stage one (typical) - if high or low overlap of all features, a yes or no is quick

stage two (atypical) - if moderate overlap, consider defining features

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7
Q

Prototype Theory

A

A concept is represented by a prototypical item. Includes characteristic features that are usually present not just necessary for the category

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8
Q

Superordinate

A

very broad categories, difficult to image

animal, plant, tool

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9
Q

Basic

A

levels at which categories are represented that contain the most useful information, easy to image

cats, tree

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10
Q

subordinate

A

highly specific example

siamese cat

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11
Q

What region do superordinate items activate?

A

prefrontal cortex

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12
Q

What region do subordinate items activate?

A

Parietal Region

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13
Q

Exemplar Theory

A

a concept is represented simply by all of the members that are in that concept

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14
Q

Issues with exemplar

A

implausible that people remember every example of every category

Ad Hoc categories
- people can create categories for items that are unlikely to be stored together (objects you can sit on)

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15
Q

War of the Ghost Story

A

People of English background (schema) read indigenous story and omitted details and produced shorter, more coherent stories.

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16
Q

Verbal labels (schemas on memory selection)

A

People’s memory of an image to replicate was impacted by the label they were given of the original sketch (if they were told two circles were glasses and asked to reproduce the image later, they will create an image that looks more prototypical of glasses)

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17
Q

Recall office material

A

people are highly likely to recall items in an office scene that fit the “office schema”

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18
Q

General rule of recalling material (office schema)

A

if time is limited and information describes a minor event = people remember schema consistent material

if information describes a major event that is inconsistent with schema = people will remember that item (huge wine bottle)

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19
Q

Whorfian hypothesis

A

language determines or influences thinking

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20
Q

Brown & Lenneberg (color vocabulary)

A

easy to name colors were more accurately remembered than hard to name colors

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21
Q

Heider (Dani Tribe)

A
  • Dani only use 2 color words (light and dark)
  • still remembered easy to name colors better
  • suggested perception influences language not language influencing perception
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22
Q

Counting (chinese children)

A

Chinese numerical names are compatible with traditional 10-base numerations (15 is spoken as ten-five)
Chinese children learn to count earlier than american children

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23
Q

Phonology

A

the study of the way sound functions in the language

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24
Q

Phoneme

A

basic unit of sound

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25
Q

morphology

A

study of the internal structure of words

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26
Q

morpheme

A

smallest unit of meaning
free = old, the
bound = -er, -ist

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27
Q

semantics

A

the study of meaning, link between language and concepts

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28
Q

syntax

A

the grammatical rules that govern how words can be combined into sentences

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29
Q

pragmatics

A

knowledge of social rules that underlie language

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30
Q

Chomsky’s Approach to psycholinguistics

A

humans have an innate understanding of the principles of language
language is processed differently than other cognitive tasks

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31
Q

Surface Structure

A

the words that are actually spoken or written

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32
Q

Deep Structure

A

the underlying meaning of a sentence

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33
Q

Transformational rules

A

rules people use to convert deep structures into surface structure and vice versa

34
Q

Challenges to Chomsky’s approach

A

people don’t take longer to process a sentence that requires numerous transformations

35
Q

factors influencing comprehension

A
  • negatives (the star isn’t above the ball)
  • passive voice (the ball was thrown by sara)
  • ambuiguity (he gave her cat food)
  • complex syntax
36
Q

neurolinguistics

A

the discipline that examines how the brain processes language

37
Q

wernicke’s aphasia

A

grammar is right but content is meaningless

38
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

meaning without grammar, connector words are gone

39
Q

left hemisphere on language processing

A

superior language abilities

40
Q

right hemisphere

A

modest language skills but superior at
- metaphor
-humor
-emotional tone
- remote associates

41
Q

Asymmetrical dendritic branching

A

the right hemisphere’s dendrites are more spread out which may contribute to broader associations

42
Q

Factors that influence eye fixations while reading

A
  • word frequency
  • ambiguous pronoun
  • end of sentence
  • dyslexia
43
Q

Dual route approach to reading

A

recognize words directly through vision (direct route) and sounding out the word (indirect route)

44
Q

Phonics approach to reading

A

readers recognize words by trying to pronounce individual letters (indirect route)

45
Q

whole word approach

A

argues readers can directly connect the written word (as an entire unit) with the meaning this word represents
- emphasizes context within sentence

46
Q

evidence countering whole word approach

A
  • even skilled readers achieve only about 25% accuracy when looking at incomplete sentence and guessing which word is missing
  • poor readers fail to learn fluently with this approach
47
Q

prescriptive models

A

models describing the best way to make a decision

48
Q

descriptive models

A

models describing the way decisions are actually made

49
Q

classical decision theory

A

assumed decision makers:
- knew all the options available
- understood the pros and cons of each option
- rationally made their final choice
- goal was the maximize value of decision

50
Q

satisficing

A

to obtain an outcome that is good enough
- do not consider total range of options
- consider options one by one until one meets our minimum standard

51
Q

maximizers

A

examine as many options as possible
- made more money
- tend to experience more regret
- tend to experience more depressive symptoms

52
Q

satisficers

A

tend to settle for something that is satisfactory
- happier with their jobs

53
Q

Kahneman and Tversky

A

proposed a small number of heuristics guide human decision making

54
Q

representative heuristic

A

people judge a sample is likely if it is similar to the population from which the sample was selected

55
Q

availability heuristic

A

people make judgements about the frequency or likelihood of an event by how easily it comes to mind (in the news; people overestimate # of people who died in a tornado and fire but underestimated drowning and asthma)

56
Q

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

A

presentation order:
1… * 8 gets a smaller guess (people anchor onto 1)
8* …1 gets a larger guess people anchor onto 8

57
Q

framing effect

A

positively framing led to preferences for certain outcome
negative framing led to preference for risky outcome

58
Q

overconfidence

A

people tend to have unrealistic optimism about their abilities, judgements, and skills

59
Q

Planning fallacy study

A

asked students to give best and worst case scenario for completing task, people took longer to complete task than even their worst case scenario

60
Q

hindsight bias

A

occurs when people feel they “knew it all along”

61
Q

well defined problem solving

A

steps to solution are clear

62
Q

ill defined problem solving

A

steps to solution are vague

63
Q

matrices

A

use a matrix to solve a problem, fill in all of the unknowns to keep track of them

64
Q

diagrams

A

represent abstract information in a concrete fashion

65
Q

analogy

A

use better understood problem to solve a new problem

66
Q

means end heuristic

A

identify ends you want and then figure out the means to reach them, divide into subproblems

67
Q

hill climbing technique

A

people choose the step that gets them closest to the goal

68
Q

problem of local maxima

A

states that are closer to the goal than any other neighboring states but are still not the goal
- have to overcome by stepping back

69
Q

expertise and problem solving

A
  • better memory skills
  • faster problem solving
  • better understanding metacognitive skills
  • experts underestimate time novices will require to solve a problem in their area of expertise
70
Q

mental set and problem solving

A

using the same solution from previous problems even though the problem could be solves in an easier way

71
Q

functional fixedness

A

assign stable uses for an object

72
Q

noninsight problems

A

gradual solutions, can identify when you are closer to the solution (algebra problem)

73
Q

insight problems

A

seems impossible until sudden solution appears (riddle)

74
Q

physical distance when problem solving

A

insight problems that were thought to be composed in distant institutes were solved more accurately

75
Q

temporal distance when problem solving

A

more accurate problem solving if imagining yourself a year from now vs tomorrow

76
Q

right/left hemisphere and problem solving

A

solved problems easier if hint was given in the left visual field (to correspond with right hemisphere)

77
Q

mirror system/ mirror neurons

A

-mirror neurons are active when watching someone perform and action and when you perform the action yourself
- active when trying to listen to someone talking in noisy setting

78
Q

Bradshaw & Nettleton (reading with similar sounding words)

A

showed people pairs of words that were similar in spelling but different in sound (mown, down) -> people asked to read the first word silently and the second word out loud. Results showed that the participants experienced no hesitation pronouncing the second word

79
Q

Luo (1998) (words with similar meaning but different spelling)

A

instructed the students to read a series of pairs of words and decide whether the two words were unrelated or related. (Lion and Bare) people frequently made errors because they judged their semantic meaning (bear) to be similar

80
Q

situated cognition

A

use helpful information from our immediate environment to process information

81
Q

embodied cognition

A

use our own bodies to draw information (waving our hands when we have tip of the tongue experience)

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