Unit 7 (cognition) Flashcards
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test (external cues)
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. (short cut)
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Ability to deal with multiple stimuli simultaneously)
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system (raven)
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
(also known as retrieval practice effect of test-enhanced learning)
shallow processing
1st level of encoding; based on the structure or appearance of stimulus
deep processing
2nd level of encoding; based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (no external cues)
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
antreograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Protype
a mental image or best example of a category
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information (truck driver vs ivy league professor) (poetry)
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound unit C-U-P
Morpheme
the smallest unit that carries meaning ex- 1[buter]2[fly]
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—”go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
Broca’s area
Controls language expression (speaking) - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke’s area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
hierarchy
A group organized by rank
intrinstic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
