Unit 1 (History and Approaches) Flashcards
Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. (REMEMMBER INTROSPECTION W STRUCTURALISM)
Functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function–how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Experimental Psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Humanistic Psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.
Cognitive Neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes.
Nature-Nurture Issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
Natural Selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Levels of Analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
Biopsyhosocial Approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
Biological Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes.
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.
Psychodynamic Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
Behavioral Psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Internal processes)
Social-Cultural Psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
Psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
Basic Research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Developmental Psychology
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
Educational Psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
Personality Psychology
the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Social Psychology
the scientific study if how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Applied Research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
Industrial-Organized (I/O) Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
Human Factors Pyschology
the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments.
Counseling Psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Clinical Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
Psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered the Father of modern psychology; study of mental processes, introspection, and self-exam; established the first psychology laboratory in Germany
did an experiment measuring the time between hearing a sound and pressing a button which was then compared to time finishing hard things seen as the first physiological experiment and stated a renuence of the industry
Washburn
1871-1939 American psychologist who was the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology in the United States; published research on mental processes in animals.
Calkins
1863-1930 American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; established one of the first US psychology research laboratories; first woman president of the American Psychological Association.
Freud
Austrian physician. Developed influential theory of personality, emphasizes the ways emotional responses of childhood experiences and are unconscious thought affects our behavior
James
practitioner of functionalism also believed in evolution
Introspection
A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
Natural Selection (Charles Darwin):
Darwin’s principle states that the strongest survive to pass on their traits, is in favor of the nature side of nature-nurture.
Neuroscience Perspective
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
Cognitive Perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior.
Behavior Genetics
How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
Hindsight Bias
The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted an outcome after knowing that it occurred.
(when you think that you “knew it all along” when you are told new information)
Overconfidence
Our tendency to believe we will perform better than we actually do
Critical Thinking
the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.
Theory
A well developed principle that can be proved over and over though tested results
Hypotheses
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. A definition that can be measured and repeated.
Replication
(in research) Being able to repeat an experiment and get the same results
Case Study
in which psychologists study one individual in great depth in hope of revealing things true of us all
Survey
asks many people to report their behaviors or opinions and studies many cases in less depth
False-Consensus Effect
tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them
Population
The whole group you want to study or describe
Random Sample
A portion of the population in which every person in the group has an equal chance of participating
Stratified Sample
when you divide the population into groups then take a random sample from them to get a more mixed result
Wording Effects
The effect that subtle changes in the words or order of words (in a survey question, for example) can have on a study participant
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
A relationship between variables, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable- as in the correlation between a child’s age and height.
Scatter Plot
a graph in which the values of two variables are plotted along two axes, the pattern of the resulting points revealing any correlation present.
Correlation coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
Experiment
When a researcher focuses on the possible effects of one or more factors by manipulating the factors of interest and holding constant other factors.
Double-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
Experimental condition
(ex- plant does get water)
Control condition
(ex- plant does not get water)
Random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Confounding variables
Factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable
Mean
Average
Median
A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The median of a list of values is the value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list - or the mean of the two central values if the list contains an even number of values.
Mode
The number that occurs most often in a set of data
Positive skew
Bump to the left, tail to the right. Mean > Median > Mode
Negative skew
Bump to the right, tail to the left. Mean < Median < Mode
Variance
A numerical index of the variability in a set of data.
(The average of the squared differences from the Mean.)
Range
Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.
Standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (square root of variance)
Statistical significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Culture
shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next
Descriptive statistics
Mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize data in a meaningful way
Inferential statistics
infer predictions about a larger population that the sample represents.
Reliability
Extent to which a test yields consistent results
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Hawthorne Effect
A change in a subject’s behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.
Experimenter Bias
-Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of the study influence the results obtaine
Socrates
philosophy teacher who concluded the mind was separated from the body, and the knowledge is innate and born within us
Plato
student of Socrates that believed and taught his theories to Aristotle
Descartes
philosopher who agreed with Socrates and Plato about the existence of innate ideas and the mind being separate from the body ,and that the liquid by the brain in an animal’s head was the animals spirits
Locke
british political philosopher wrote “our own abilities” and “ An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding” his thoughts where very nurture over nature
Cross-sectional study
a type of research design in which you collect data from many different individuals at a single point in time
psychometric study
the study of tests and measurement
American Psychological Association
It addresses a number of ethical guidelines for the practice of psychology.
Gestalt law
Law of proximity: Objects or shapes that are close to one another appear to form groups.
Law of similarity: Similar elements tend to be grouped together.
Law of continuity: We perceive continuous lines or patterns even if they are interrupted.
Law of closure: We tend to complete incomplete shapes or patterns.
Law of Prägnanz: Our perceptual organization forms as good a whole as the prevailing conditions allow
Introspection example
presenting a participant with an object, such as a can of soda, and having the subject report his or her perceptions or experience of the can
Mr. Gregg wants to help his second-grade students improve their reading skills. He tests the students with 20 reading comprehension questions at the beginning of the year. Every week throughout the year he gives the students 30 minutes of reading comprehension tips. He tests the students at the end of the year with 20 reading comprehension questions that are similar in difficulty to those on the original test. He finds that the students’ reading comprehension has increased and concludes that his tips worked. Which of the following describes the most significant problem with Mr. Gregg’s study?
Mr. Gregg failed to account for changes in the students’ maturity.
The advantage of an experiment is that it allows a researcher to
infer cause and affect
Do surveys or experiments allow a study of a larger number of subjects
surveys
Deception can be used in research when
as long as the research is ethical and
