U1: Scientific Foundations (10-14%) Flashcards
define PSYCHOLOGY
study of brain & functions leading to the mind & behavior
define THE MIND
private inner experiences of thought, perception, memories, & emotion
define BEHAVIOR
observable actions of human & non-human beings
define SCIENCE
something to observe/study/experiment
define EMPIRICISM
idea knowledge comes from experience & science therefore only rely on observation & experiments
the 3 early domains are also referred to as what
3 schools of thought
what are the 3 schools of thought
structuralism, functionalism, & behaviorism
define FUNCTIONALISM
studying functioning of mind & reason to explain observable behavior
define STRUCTURALISM
studying structure of mind’s basic elements & mental processes
define BEHAVIORISM
behaviors learned through conditioning w/interactions w/environmental stimuli & psychology should be objective psychology by only studying observations
define PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
created by Freud; unconscious mind shapes & influences behavior
what idea were Socrates & Plato known for
thoughts come from heart and is different from body
what idea was Descartes known for
introduces empiricism & thoughts are from brain
what was Wilhelm Wundt known for
structuralism & father of modern psychology
What idea was Edward Titchner known for
functionalism
idea were John Watson & Rosalie Rayner known for
behaviorism
What was BF Skinner known for
behaviorist that studied reward & punishment to shape behavior
What was Sigmund Freud known for
elevated psychology to more established science & psychodynamic theory
define NATURE V NURTURE
relative contribution genes & experience make to development of traits & behavior
define BEHAVIOR GENETICS
study of relative power & limits of genetic & environmental influences on behavior
define HEREDITY
genetic transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring
define ENVIRONMENT
every nongenetic influence
list the 8 perspectives of psychology
- behavioral
- biological
- cognitive
- evolutionary
- humanistic
- psychodynami
- social-cultural
- biopsychosocial
define BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH
views for analyzing behaviors from biological, psychological, & social/cultural
give examples of the biological view of the biopsychosocial approach
natural selection, genetics, hormones, neurology
give examples of the psychological view of the biopsychosocial approach
trauma, mental illness, learned behavior, perception
give examples of the sociocultural view of the biopsychosocial approach
religion, ethnicity, social circles, media, expectations
define SUBJECTIVE TRUTH
judgment understandable for some rational individuals but not reasonable for others
define OBJECTIVE TRUTH
truth independent from indiv’s perspective
define BIAS
prejudice in favor/against in a way that’s unfair
give examples of bias
money, religion, public perception, sex/race/ethnicity, politics, values
define VALUES
general beliefs about desirable/undesirable ways of behaving/goals or outcomes
give examples of values
religion, culture, philosophy, and learned experiences
define SCIENTIFIC LAW
description of observation but not explanation
define SCIENTIFIC THEORY
explains why by offering ideas to organize observations
define HYPOTHESIS
testable prediction gen implied by theory in a statement implying causation
define RANDOMNESS
apparent/actual lack of pattern
what is the difference between law & theory
law is what is happening but theory explains why
define FACTS
statements proven w/evidence & scientific studies
define OPINION
personal judgment that cannot be proven but may be based on facts
what are clues to identify an opinon?
should statements & value words
give examples of value words
good, better, immoral, risky, best
define RELIABILITY
degree test/experiment provides consistent measure
define VALIDITY
extent test/experiment measures/predicts what it is supposed to
define REPLICATION
repeating w/different groups of people in different situations
define OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
carefully worded statement of procedures of study
what are the 3 types of descriptive research?
case study, naturalistic observation, & survey
define CASE STUDY
descriptive research method that is a study of specific individual/group in great detail
define NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
descriptive research that is observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations w/o trying to manipulate
define SURVEY
descriptive research obtaining self-reported attitudes/behaviors of particular group gen by questioning random sample of population
define CORRELATION
measure of relationship between 2 variables and how well 1 predicts the other
define CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
statistical index/representation between 2 things to show relationship marked by number between -1, 0, & +1
if the correlation coefficient is closer to -1 or +1, it is a ____ relationship
strong
define EXPERIMENTATION
deliberate manipulation of variable to see if behavior changes to determine cause & effect between change & outcome
define RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
randomly assigning to experiment & control groups to minimalize pre-existing difference & confounding variables
define PLACEBO
results from expectations alone from receiving treatment
define DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE
researcher & participants ignorant if received real or placebo
define CONFOUNDING/LURKING VARIABLE
variable not being studied but may affect treatment
define INTERNAL VALIDITY
accuracy of experiment
define EXTERNAL VALIDITY
how well experiment can be applied to outside situations
define DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
numerical data to measure & describe characteristics of group
define INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
how we see how 1 group of variables is related to each other
define STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
how likely obtained result is due to chance
define SKEWED
data lacks symmetry around average
define STANDARD DEVIATION
measure how much scores vary around mean
what are basic ideas/principles of the code of ethics regarding human experimentation?
- must not create pain/discomfort/stress/anxiety
- participant must give consent voluntarily
- must inform participants enough to give consent
- must debrief & give results to participant after study
- must keep participant info confidential
- participant may back out at anytime
- research must be culturally sensitive
What are the major drawbacks of hindsight bias understanding?
causes/spreads misinformation, leads to overconfidence, overestimate intuition
What approach to understanding do scientists prefer & why?
scientific method/scientific attitude (?)
describe the characteristics of a good theory
- effectively organizes range of self-reports & observations
- leads to a clear hypothesis that anyone can use to check theory
- often stimulates research that leads to a revised theory
Why are operational definitions important?
allow for replication of experiment
What is a reliable measurement?
data is consistent
list the five ethical principles in the American Psychological Association (APA) code of ethics
beneficence & nonmaleficence, fidelity & responsibility, integrity, justice, respect
list the primary ethical principles for conducting research with humans
- obtain informed consent
- protect participants from physical/emotional harm/discomfort
- keep participant’s info confidential
- fully debrief after research
what are the justifications & criticisms for research using animals
justification: leads to development of human technology, learn about humans
criticism: animal rights & welfare
What is a case study? identify advantages & drawbacks
studying one person to observe phenomena; case studies only need 1 person and gen done when it is unethical to perform experiment on others but can be misleading bc it only uses one person
How can the findings of case studies mislead us in everyday life?
uncontrolled variables, data can be incorrect if individual is atypical, lead to mistaken judgments/false conclusions
what is the greatest advantage of naturalistic observation
can be done when not ethical to manipulate variables
what biases can occur when conducting naturalistic observation
experimenter expectancy effect
what are some advantages & disadvantages of survey research?
advantages: quick & inexpensive
disadvantage: word choice & sampling bias
Why do researchers rely on random sampling
to rule out lurking variables
What is the main goal of correlational research and how is it achieved
goal: see how two values relate to other
achieved: create scatter plot
Why are we unable to draw casual conclusions from correlational findings
correlation does not equal causation, correlational relationships do not prove that it is the cause/directly related to something
how can correlational research predict behavior
show likelihood/possibility of something happening based on the value of another factor
Describe the logic of experimentation
- start w/equivalent groups of participants
- treat equally in all respects except for independent variable which is isolated & manipulated
- measure how groups respond
how does random assignment differ from random sampling
- random assignment = dividing participants by chance into experimental & control groups
- random sampling = sample that represents population for survey
describe Rosenzweig’s experiment
male rats were separated into enriched & deprived environments for period of time before they were euthanized & their brain was measured for thickness, heaviness, synapses, and acetylcholine receptors
why do researches manipulate two independent variables in the same experiment?
allows study of possible relationship of independent variables to each other
why does experimenter expectancy effects lower the internal validity of experiments
causes bias in the way experimenter may treat participants
How do researchers minimize experimenter expectancy effects?
double blind procedure
as a critical thinker, what questions should you ask when someone makes a claim or assertion?
- How do they know?
- What is their agenda/
- is the conclusion based on anecdote/intuition or evidence?
- Does the evidence justify cause-effect conclusion?
- Alternative explanations?
Contrasts descriptive & inferential statistics
- descriptive = data to measure & describe
- inferential = how variables relate to each other
in a normal curve, what % of cases should fall within 1 standard deviation on either side of mean
68%
what are the benefits of correlational research
works w/large groups, can be done where experiment isn’t ethical/possible
what are the benefits of experimental research
specifies cause & effect, variables controlled
what are the cons of experimental research
sometimes not feasible, results may not generalize to other contexts, sometimes unethical to manipulate
