The Self and Self-Perception

Question 1

The Self:

“Our sense of personal i__ and of who we are as i__.”

-In humans, develops roughly at __ months of age

Answer 1

identity, individuals

18

Question 2

The Self:

Self-Concept: Knowledge r__ that contains knowledge about u_, including b__ about p__ traits, ph__ characteristics, ab__, va__, go__, ro__, and knowledge we exist as i__.

Two parts:
I__ (self-s__)
e__ (s__ identity)

Answer 2

representation, us, beliefs, personality, physical, abilities, values, goals, roles, individuals

internal, schemas
external, social

Question 3

Internal – Self-Schemas

Self-schemas:
Variety of different c__ as__ of the s__.

Self-reference effect:
Schemas have an o__ function
-in experimental conditions of structural, phonemic, semantic, and self-reference, memory was best for __ condition.

Answer 3

cognitive aspects, self

organizational, self-reference

Question 4

External – Social Identity

Social identity:
The s__ of our s__ that involves our m__ in s__ groups.

C__ affects self-construal (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

Asian individuals are more likely to be i__.
-Fundamental r__ to one another.

Westerners were more likely to be i__ in self-construal.
-Fundamental i__ from one another.

Interdependent Self-Construal Study: seeing how often East Asians vs. European Americans chose the u__ pen color.
-European Americans more likely in both the 4/1 and 3/2 ratio to choose the __ common color.

Answer 4

sense, self, membership, social

culture

interdependent
relatedness

independent
independence

uncommon
less

Question 5

Self-Complexity and Self-Clarity:

We’re all c__. But we differ on the l__ of complexity.

Self-complexity (SCo)
The extent to which individuals have many d__ and relatively i__ ways of t__ about t__. (Stangor, 2016)

Woman who views herself as st__, gi__, da__, ps__ student, and te__ player vs. Man who views self as an at__.

Answer 5

complex, levels

different, independent, thinking, themselves

student, girlfriend, daughter, psychology, tennis

athlete

Question 6

Higher Self Complexity linked to:

-__ self-esteem
~Greater self-esteem c__.

• Lower levels of s__ and i__.
• Greater tolerance for f__.

-High SC not beneficial for a__.
~Those with n__ ways of thinking about s__.

Answer 6

higher
contingencies

stress, illness
frustration

all
negative, self

Question 7

Self-Clarity:

Self-Clarity (SCl)
-The extent to which one’s s__-c__ is c__ and c__ defined.

-Should be i__ of s__-c__.

-Correlated positively with:
~S__-e__ (Campbell, 1996)
~Mediates relationship between s__ and w__-b__.

Answer 7

self-concept, clearly, consistently

independent, self-complexity

self-esteem
stress, well-being

Question 8

Self-awareness:
The extent to which we are currently f__ our a__ on our own s__-c__. (Stangor, 2016)

If motivation is concern about being j__ and o__, we experience increased s__-c__.
-Increased accessibility and presence of c__.

Self awareness can be promoted through p__.

-Work of B__ et al. (halloween candy taken with and without a mirror when there’s a sign that says take only 1)
~__.% (mirror) vs. __.% (no mirror)

Dan Batson (c\_\_ flipping)
-people less likely to c\_\_ in their favor if mirror.

Answer 8

fixing, attention, self-concept

judged, observed, self-consciousness

concerns

priming
beaman
14.4%
28.5%

coin, cheat

Question 9

Deindividuation: Loss of individual s__-a__ and individual a__ in groups.

Increase a__ to other g__ members and social n__ of the situation.

• S__ baiting
• Playing sports with a u__
• Prison guards wearing s__ in Zimbardo SPE

Can lead to p__-s__ behavior
-Wearing a n__’s uniform caused greater h__.

Answer 9

self-awareness, accountability, groups

attunement, group, norms
suicide
uniform
sunglasses

pro-social
nurse’s, helping

Question 10

The S__ I__ Model of D__ Effects (SIDE; Reicher et al., 1995):

Deindividuated states can reinforce group s__ and c__ to specific group n__.

-NOT l__ of i__ identity, greater importance of c__ identity.

Answer 10

social identity, deindividuation

salience, conformity, norms

loss, individual, collective

Question 11

Private vs. Public Self-Consciousness:

Private self-consciousnes:

• Tendency to i__ about inner t__ and f__ (Stangor, 2016)
• “I am always trying to f__ m__ out.”

Public self-consciousness:

• Tendency to focus on our outer public i__ and to be aware of the extent to which we are meeting s__ set by o__.
• “I’m concerned about what o__ p__ think of me.”

As applied to m__.

Answer 11

introspect, thoughts, feelings
figure myself

image, standards, others
other people

masculinity

Question 12

Self-Discrepancy:

Self-discrepancy theory (SDT):
When we perceive a discrepancy between a__ and i__ selves, this is d__ to us (Higgins et al., 1987).

• Actual Self
• Ideal Self
• Ought Self

If your actual self is different than your ideal self, you’ll feel d__, d__, and s__.

If your actual self is different than you ought self (determined by o__), you’ll feel a__, i__, and g__.

Answer 12

actual, ideal, distressing

disappointment, dejection, sadness

others
anxiety, irritability, guilt

Question 13

Self-esteem :

The f__ we have about o__; extent to which one l__ oneself. Can be p__ or n__.

Overall assessment of one’s w__ as a person:
~g__ (positive or negative attitude toward the self as a totality) vs. c__.
~s__ vs. u__ (tr__ vs. st__)
~i__ or e__

Answer 13

feelings, ourselves, likes
positive, negative

worth

• global, collective
• stable, unstable, trait vs. state
• implicit, explicit

Question 14

What is self-esteem related to?

• One of the most s__ constructs.
• Best predictor of life s__ among adults.
• Believed to be related to v__, less effective s__ skills, e__ problems, etc.

Answer 14

studied

satisfaction

violence, social, emotional

Question 15

G__ Self Esteem Scale (R__, 1965):
-general statements about overall feeling of oneself in which some are reverse scored.

1) I feel that I’m a person of w__, at least on an e__ plane with others.
2) I feel that I have number of g__ qualities.
3) All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a f__. (R)
4) I am able to do things as w__ as most other people.
5) I feel I do not have much to be p__ of. (R)

Answer 15

global
rosenberg

worth, equal

good

failure

well

proud

Question 16

Average RSES of 252 A__-A__, A__-A__ college students and community individuals from Columbus.

_ _

Answer 16

african-american
asian-american

58

Question 17

An E__-able Part of the Self – Self-Esteem:

Much about self-esteem is in the o__.
~Several different t__ of s__-e__ used in research.

Sociometer hypothesis (Leary et al., 1995)
~Self-esteem is nothing more than a readout of our likely s\_\_ within our s\_\_ circle.

Answer 17

enhance

operationalization
types, self-esteem

standing, social

Question 18

Meta analyses on group-levels of self-esteem suggest certain groups report higher levels while other groups report lower levels. Which ordering corresponds to the Twenge and Crocker’s (2002) research on group differences?

Answer 18

African American > Caucasian > Latinx > Indigenous peoples > Asians

Question 19

This type of self-esteem is thought to rise and fall based on currently happening circumstances:

Answer 19

state self-esteem

Question 20

Self-Esteem Comparisons:

African Americans expected to have __ SE, but they don’t. (Twenge & Crocker, 2002)
-In fact, Blacks have most recently been shown to have __ SE than even Whites.

Women score __ on SE than men.
-Particularly during ages of __-__.

Those from c__ cultures show lower levels of SE than those from i__ cultures (Campbell et al., 1996).

Answer 20

lower
higher

lower
15-18

collectivistic, individualistic

Question 21

S__ Self Esteem Scale (1st 10 items):
-Looks at self esteem in c__ circumstance.

1) I feel c__ in my abilities.
2) I am worried about whether I am regarded as a s__ or f__ (R).
3) I feel satisfied with the way my b__ looks r__ n__.
4) I feel frustrated or rattled about my p__ (R).
5) I feel that I am having trouble understanding things that I r__.
6) I feel that others r__ and a__ me.
7) I am dissatisfied with my w__. (R)
8) I feel s__-c__. (R)
9) I feel as s__ as others.
10) I feel d__ with myself. (R)

Answer 21

state
current

confident

success, failure

body, right now

performance

read

respect, admire

weight

self-conscious

smart

displeased

Question 22

C__ Self-Esteem Scale:

1) I am a w__ member of the Asian race.
2) I often r__ that I am Asian.
3) Overall, Asians are considered g__ by others.
4) Overall, being Asian has very l__ to do with how I feel about myself.
5) I feel I don’t have much to o__ to the Asian community.
6) In general, I’m g__ to be Asian.
7) Most people consider Asians, on the average, to be more i__ than other social groups.
8) Being Asian is an i__ reflection of who I am.
9) I am a cooperative p__ in the Asian community.
10) Overall, I often feel that being Asian is not w__.

Answer 22

collective

worthy

regret

good

little

offer

glad

ineffective

important

participant

worthwhile

Question 23

Is High Self-Esteem Good?

Some positive correlations:
-More s__ with life, more h__, and less d__. (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001).

• More able to c__ with life’s c__ such as college s__ (Cutrona, 1982)
• Respond more a__ to n__ feedback
• Greater p__ (Brockner, 1979)

Some negative correlations
-High self-esteem is d__ to n__ (Raskin & Terry, 1988).

Answer 23

satisfied, hopeful, depressed

cope, challenges, stress

adaptively, negative

persistence

definitional, narcissism

Question 24

Implicit Self-Esteem

Use of _ _ _ to measure self-esteem:
~Pairing p__ vs. n__ words with m_ vs. n__ m_ category headings.

~People show greater f__ with “__” words (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).

C__ differences not as apparent on i__ vs. e__ measures.

Answer 24

IAT
positive, negative, me, not me

facilitation, me

cultural, implicit vs. explicit

Question 25

How is Self-Esteem Enhanced?

Self-enhancement:
Tendency to maintain p__ f__ about o__.

Variety of different methods:

1. Social c__
2. D__ comparisons
   Comparing oneself with one whose problems are w__.
3. S__-s__ biases
   Attributing success to p__ reasons; attributing failure to e__ reasons
4. B__ in R__ G__ (BIRGing)
   - Irrelevant - Tendency to enhance one’s image p__ by announcing one’s a__ with those who are s__.
   - Relevant – C__
   - Self-evaluation maintenance theory (Tesser, 1988- a person will try to m__ or i__ their own self-evaluation, and self-evaluation is influenced by r__ with o__)
5. Self-h__
   - S__ one’s performance to have an e__ for f__.

Answer 25

positive feelings, oneself

connection

downward, worse

self-serving
personal, external

basking, reflected, glory
publicly, affiliation, successful
comparison

maintain, increase, relationships, others

handicapping, sabotaging, excuse, failure

Question 26

Self-affirmation theory:
People will try to reduce t__ to their s__-c__ posed by feelings of s__-d__ by focusing on and affirming w__ in another, unrelated d__ (Stangor, 2016)

-I may not have done w__ this s__, but I’m a k__ person.

Answer 26

threat, self-concept, self-discrepancy, worth, domain

well, semester, kind

Question 27

The Self and Social Media:

Rise of social media has provided both a w__ in to the f__ of the self as well as a f__ that possibly i__ the self.

• Over _._B fb users
• Roughly __M Snapchat users
• __M Twitter users

Answer 27

window, function, force, impacts

1.2

190

126

Question 28

Social Media and Narcissism:

V__’ estimations of narcissism by viewing f__ pages correlated with narcissism r__ by fb page o__ (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008).
-Mediators: m__ photo, q__ of social i__.

Participants’ focused on e__ MySpace or fb pages caused increase in n__ or positive s__-v__, respectively (Gentile et al., 2012)

Answer 28

viewers, facebook, ratings, owners

main, quality, interaction

editing, narcissism, self-views

Question 29

Social Media and Self-Esteem:

-SNSs provide abundant __ comparison opportunities

~Greater use of f__ correlates with lower t__ S__ E__.

~In an experiment, greater use of f__ causes lower s__ S__E__ and lower relative s__-e__ when targeting someone for __ comparison vs. __ comparison (Feinstein et al., 2013)

Answer 29

upward

facebook, trait self esteem

facebook, state self esteem, self evaluations, upward, downward

Question 30

Social Media and Benefits to the Self?

Some studies have shown (+) impact of SNS (Ellison et al., 2007)

• Promotes c__ to o__ acquaintances and f__ of n__ acquaintances.
• May improve w__-b__ among those with __ self-esteem or life-s__.

Answer 30

connection, old, formation, new

well-being, lower, satisfaction

Question 31

Cognitive dissonance:
-A n__ state of a__ that occurs when we r__ or hold i__ that are i__ with a__ or b__.

-Festinger claims we are motivated to __ dissonance.

Example: I b__ malt liquor should only be consumed on the w__, but I have one after my social psychology c__.

How does Festinger say we reduce dissonance?

• Changing an a__ to bring it in line with b__.
• Avoid c__ information.
• Adding c__.
• Changing b__.

Answer 31

negative, arousal, respond, ideas, inconsistent, attitudes, behaviors

decrease

believe, weekend, class

attitude, behavior
contrary
cognitions
behavior

Question 32

Reducing Dissonance:

Changing an a__ to bring it in line with the a__.

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
Paradigm: Had participants come in and participate in an incredibly b__ peg-turning and spool-filling task (for one full hour). Following the exercise, they were asked to go out and l__ to the next person about how e__ the task was.

_ : Half of the participants were paid $, the other half were paid $_.

_ _: The extent to which people actually e__ the task.

Results:
Those paid $20 for lying rated the activity as __, but the ones paid only $1 for lying rated the activity as __!

Answer 32

attitude, action

boring, lie, exciting

IV, 1, 20

DV, enjoyed

dull, enjoyable

Question 33

Reducing Dissonance:

Changing an a__ to bring it in line with the a__.

Mills (1958)
Paradigm: Mills (1958) performed experiment where children were set up with a task that was almost impossible to do well without cheating. Also created the illusion that cheating would be hard to be detected. Got pre- and post- evaluations of attitudes toward cheating.

What do you think Mills found as differences between those who cheated and those who did not?

Answer 33

attitude, action

The children who cheated became more lenient toward cheating, and those who didn’t adopted a harsher attitude towards it.

Question 34

Reducing Dissonance:

Avoiding Contrary Information:
-By being b__, we can protect ourselves from dissonance by not paying a__ to t__ information.

Jones and Kohler (1959)
Paradigm: Selected individuals who were either very pro-segregation or anti-segregation. They would read a series of arguments, some plausible and some silly, some pro-segregation and others anti-segregation.

_ _: Whether participants were p__- or a__-segregation.
_ _: Which arguments were r__.

Results:
Pro-segregation people remembered the __ pro-segregation arguments and the __ anti-segregation arguments, and the reverse was true for the anti-segregationist.

-It’s more comforting to have the wise reasons on y__ side and the silly reasons on the o__ side.

Answer 34

contrary

biased, attention, threatening

IV, pro, anti

DV, remembered

plausible, silly

your, other

Question 35

Reducing Dissonance:

Avoiding C__ Information:

Sweeney and Gruber (1984)
Paradigm: Studied the likelihood that Nixon and McGovern supporters would watch the Watergate hearings.

_ _: Whether participants were p__-Nixon or p__-McGovern.

_ _: How much t__ was spent watching the Watergate hearings.

Results:
__ supporters watched more of the hearings than did __ supporters.

Answer 35

contrary

IV, pro, pro

DV, time

mcgovern, nixon

Question 36

Reducing Dissonance:

Avoiding C__ Information

For Comprehensive Final Exams:

• Appealing to e__ and g__ school (__)
• Part of a recent t__ among Big __ schools (__)

Against Comprehensive Final Exams:

• Waste of p__ (__)
• Comprehensive exams in some majors may be more d__ than others making s__ or c__ difficult (__)

Answer 36

contrary

employers, grad (good)
trend, 10 (weak)

paper (weak)
difficult, standardization, comparison (good)

Question 37

Reducing Dissonance:

Adding C__:
The process of adding a__ (and not always r__) thoughts to reduce d__.

• I smoke but am aware of the health consequences of smoking. I tell myself that since I take the s__, I can continue to s__.
• I practice unsafe s__ and realize I could be sending myself to an early grave, but reason to myself that since I take v__, I should be ok.

Answer 37

cognitions
additional, relevant, dissonance

stairs, smoke

sex, vitamins

Question 38

Reducing Dissonance:

Changing B__:
An easy way to reduce dissonance is to simply change the b__ (as long as it’s not i__) that is causing d__.

• I smoke but am aware of the health c__ of smoking. I therefore q__.
• I practice unsafe sex, but realize I could be sending myself to an early g__, so I s__ having sex all together.

Answer 38

behavior

behavior, irrevocable, dissonance

consequences, quit

grave, stop

Question 39

Justification of Effort:

For example:

• Joining a fraternity or sorority with significant hazing.
• Lending a book to someone you don’t really like all that much.
• Cheating on an exam.

Aronson and Mills (1959)
Performed a study to see how people justify their own effort.
Paradigm: Had college women join a group about the psychology of sex. Some women, in order to join, had to go through a rough initiation involving the reading of lurid passages to a male graduate student. After making into the group, the women found that the ‘interesting sex discussion’ was really a discussion about secondary sexual characteristics of lower animals!
_ _: Which initiation condition (c__, m__, s__).
_ _: Extent to which people reporting e__ the talk.

-the more __ the initiation, the more reported l__ the talk.

Answer 39

IV, control, mild, severe
DV, enjoying

severe, liking

Question 40

Self-Perception Theory:

People determine their a__ and p__ by interpreting the m__ of their own b__.

“observers without accessing internal states.”

• Tiffany Ito (2006) smiling and implicit prejudice
• when participants s__ while looking at black and white faces, they showed __ bias toward black faces during _ _ _ after.

Answer 40

attitudes, preferences, meaning, behavior

smiled, less, IAT

Question 41

The Looking Glass Self:
Charles H. Cooley (1902)

Other people’s r__ to us serve as a m__ to provide us i__ about w__ we are.

If other people constantly tell me I’m u__, eventually I may incorporate that in to my s__-c__.

Answer 41

reactions, mirror, information, who

unlovable, self-concept

Question 42

S__ Motive: Appear G__

Maintain s__-e__
Maintain our e__ in the eyes of o__.
–> S__-p__. (The tendency to present a p__ self-image to others, with the goal of increasing our social s__)

Answer 42

social, good

self-esteem

esteem, others
self-presentation
positive, status

Question 43

Is self-presentation rooted in Honesty vs. Manipulation:

• Mostly __ to facilitate social r__. (G__)
• More s__ and not always h__ (Jo__ & Pi__, 1982)

Five different strategies:

Ingratiation (Strategy where you get someone to l__ you so you can get them to c__ with your r__).

Intimidation (F__ because you are d__)

Exemplification (G__ because you are m__ respectable)

Supplication (P__ because you are h__)

Self-promotion (R__ because you are c__)

Answer 43

honest, role (goffman)

strategic, honest (jones, pittman)

like, comply, request

fear, dangerous

guilt, morally

pity, helpless

respect, competent

Question 44

Self Promotion:

Some may use SNS to self-promote.
-Increased levels of n__ linked to frequent fb “c__-i__” (Wang & Stefanone, 2013)
~“I check in so people know that I am with f__”
~“I expect friends to l__ or leave c__ on my check-in statuses on facebook.”

• Narcisissm also predicts # fb l__ and login d__ (Mehdizadeh, 2010)
• Primary factor for b__ may be s__-p__ rather than i__ (Mazur & Kozarian, 2010)

Answer 44

narcissism, check-ins

friends
like, comments

logins, duration

blogging, self-promotion, interaction

Question 45

Self Promotion:

Gender differences:

• Men more likely to i__ or l__ in.
• Women more likely to be m__; l__ and s__ are used as more common methods to demonstrate p__ social s__.

Answer 45

interrupt, lean

modest, laughing, smiling, positive, status

Question 46

Reputation Management:

L__-term self-p__:
-Individuals seek to b__ and s__ certain r__ with important a__ (Stangor, 2016)

Teenage a__-s__ behavior may build a r__ of t__ and r__ (Emler & Reicher, 1995)

Answer 46

longer, presentation
build, sustain, reputations, audiences

anti-social, reputation, toughness, rebelliousness

Question 47

Self-Monitoring:
Tendency to be both m__ and c__ of r__ our b__ to meet the d__ of social s__.

__ self-monitors are good at fitting in across a wide-variety of social situations.
~Socially c__.

~“In different s__ and with different p__, I often act like very different p__.”
~“I guess I put on a s__ to impress or entertain people.”
~“At social parties or gatherings, I do not try to d_ or s_ things that other people will l__.”

Answer 47

motivated, capable, regulating, behavior, demands, situations

high
chameleonic

situations, people, persons
show
do, say, like

Question 48

Self-Monitoring
Chartrand and Cheng (2003)

• High self monitors mimicked face touching in the condition where they were __ status compared to the confederate (__ role) compared to when they were assigned to the __ role.
• Low self monitors were relatively c__ in mimicking face touching compared to high monitors but mimicked more in the __ role.

Answer 48

lower, worker, leader

consistent, leader