Attitudes Flashcards
What an attitude is:
- Ev__ of pe__, ob__, or id__.
- Relatively en__ ev__ of something
~ LeBron James or the priests of the Catholic order
~ Hummers, kumquats or pomegranates
~ Rights, immigration, protest
- As__ in memory between an at__ object (e.g., an ap__) and its ev__ (sc__!)
~ The stronger the as__, the stronger the at__.
evaluation, people, objects, ideas
enduring, evaluation
association, attitude, apple, evaluation, scrumptious
association, attitude
Some attitudes are he__.
Attitudes that scored high on heritability are: ~ab\_\_ on demand ~ro\_\_ co\_\_ rides ~de\_\_ penalty for murder etc...
heritable
abortion
roller coaster
death
Qualities of an attitude:
- Va__:
~ Can be po__, ne__, or ne__. - St__:
~Can be st__ or we__ or anywhere in be__. - Ac__ (related to st__):
~ Ea__ with which an attitude comes to mi__. ~Strength of the as__ between an ob__ and its ev__.
valence, positive, negative, neutral
strength, strong, weak, between
accessibility, strength
ease, mind
association, object, evaluation
Tr__ (3) model of attitudes:
- Af__ component:
~How you f__ about an object, person or idea
~ Preferences not often me__ by thought. - Be__ component
- Co__ component:
~ B__ you have about an object, person or idea
tripartite
affective
feel
mediated
behavioral
cognitive
beliefs
Ut__ Function of Attitudes:
-Attitudes serve ut__:
~ An attitudinal function that serves to al__ people to re__ objects and situations they should ap__ and co__ or pu__ objects or situations they should av__.
E.g., RU_! NO_!
utilitarian
utility
alert, rewarding, approach, costly, punishing, avoid
run, now
Eg_-De__ Function of Attitudes:
Attitudes may pr__ us from un__ facts or emotions.
- Mo\_\_ salience (te\_\_ management theory) ~ People value their own i_-gr\_\_ more ~ Engage in more pa\_\_. ~ Increase re\_\_ conviction. ~ Punish mo\_\_ transgressions more ha\_\_.
- Political co__ a motivated co__ to ward off an__?
(Jost et al., 2003) .
~ Resistance to ch__.
~ Acceptance of in__.
ego-defensive
protect, unpleasant
mortality, terror in-group patriotism religious moral, harshly
conservatism, cognition, anxieties
change
inequality
Do attitudes predict be__?
Initially there was worry…
- L_Pi__ (1934)
~ Traveled all over the U.S. with a Chinese couple. Chinese people were not looked upon kindly, but only _/251 establishments failed to serve them.
~ In subsequent communications, __% said they would not serve Chinese! (But over __% DID)
-What percent of people admit to going all the way to 450V for the Mi__ study? Again, at__ (not believing in hu__ others) and be__ (actually sh__ learner) were not highly co__!
behaviors
LaPiere
2
90%, 99%
Milgram, attitudes, hurting, behavior, shocking, correlated
Do attitudes predict behaviors?
Attitudes predict behavior well when: ~ Co\_\_ b/w at\_\_ me\_\_ and be\_\_. ~ When attitudes are st\_\_. ~ When attitudes are ac\_\_. ~ When si\_\_ forces are we\_\_.
correspondence, attitude measure, behavior
strong
accessible
situational, weak
(Sp__ behavior) EX: predict likelihood to recycle newspaper at ho__.
Measure attitude toward:
- helping environment ._
- recycling ._
- recycling newspaper ._
- rec newspaper in own home ._
(Ge__ behavior) EX: predict tendency to do environmental activities in ge__.
Measure attitude toward:
- helping environment ._
- recycling ._
- recycling newspaper ._
- rec newspaper in own home ._
specific home .10 .30 .40 .50
general general .50 .40 .30 .10
Do attitudes predict behaviors?
Correlations between: Birth control u__ and birth control at__.
G__ –> S__
- How do you feel about birth control? r=.__
- How do you feel about birth control pills? r=.__
- How do you feel about using birth control pills? r=.__
- How do you feel about using birth control pills over the next two years? r=.__
use, attitudes
general, specific
.08
.32
.53
.57
When Co__ of Attitudes are More Important:
Inebriated Ho__ (MacDonald, Zanna, and Fong, 1996):
- Male participants video of Mike and Rebecca out on a date
~ IV: Half of men were s__, half were in__.
~ DV: What should Mike have d__?
Results: Though sex involves both co__
and af__ factors, under certain circumstances (when in__), __ factors are primary.
components
hookup
sober, inebriated
done
cognitive, affective, inebriated, affective
When Attitudes Predict Behaviors:
Theory of Pl__ Behavior (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975):
- Attitude toward behavior:
~Sp__ at__ toward sp__ be__. - Su__ norms:
~ Will others ca__ if I perform this behavior?
~ What are the no__ concerning this behavior? - Perceived behavioral co__:
~ How ea__ can the behavior be pe__?
planned
specific attitude, specific behavior
subjective
care
norms
control
easily, performed
Theory of Pl__ Behavior:
Be__ beliefs–> at__ toward the be__–> in__
–> be__
No__ beliefs–> su__ norm->in__–> be__
Co__ beliefs–>pe__ behavioral control
–>ac__ behavioral control–> be__
planned
behavioral–>attitudes, behavior–>intention–> behavior
normative–>subjective
->intention–> behavior
control–>perceived–> actual–> behavior
Formation of Attitudes:
Where do attitudes come from?
- In part, depends on the ty__ of attitude being di__.
type, discussed
Where do attitudes come from?
Bi__ Bases:
- Fear at the sound of a hi__ large cat or gr__ mongrel.
- Fear of sp__, sn__ and ro__.
biological
hissing, growling
spiders, snakes, rodents
Where do attitudes come from?
Cl__ conditioning:
- Pairing a stimulus at first ne__ (si__ of a bully) with an un__ stimulus (getting be__ up) –> si__ of bully will elicit an af__ attitude (fe__).
- Same as li__ Al__’s fear of w__ rats.
classical
neutral, sight, unconditioned, beaten, sight, affective, fear
little albert’s, white
Where do attitudes come from?
Op__ conditioning:
- Pairing an attitude ob__ (skinny j__) with re__
(ap__ looks, en__ by peers) will eventually lead to a po__ as__ with the object.
operant
object, jeans, reinforcement, approving, envy, positive association
Where do attitudes come from?
Se__-Pe__ Theory (Bem, 1972)
- Attitudes about ou__ are often based by ob__ our own be__ and making in__.
~ I sh__ a lot, I therefore must enjoy being cl__.
~ I te__ quite a bit, I must therefore really enjoy te__.
self-perception
ourselves, observing, behavior, inferences
shower, clean
teach, teaching
Where do attitudes come from?
Exposure to is__-re__ information:
- Pr__ are me__ by the ability to at__ to a me__.
issue-relevant
processes, mediated, attend, message
External Attitude Change:
Ya__ Attitude Approach:
- Viewed attitude change as being caused by:
1) So__:
- Po__
~ Ex__
~ Tr__
~At__
2) Na__of Co__:
- Influence more likely to occur when seemingly not designed to pe__.
- Pr__ effect – Give your pe__ message fi__.
3) Ta__:
- Di__ can aid persuasion
- Low in__=more pe__.
yale
source power expertness trustworthiness attractiveness
nature, communication
persuade
primacy, persuasive, first
target
distraction
intelligence, persuasible
Internal Attitude Change:
How can attitudes be changed?
- Cognitive Di__(Festinger, 1957)
1) ~ In__ justification (when an individual can’t come up with an ex__ reason as to why they resisted doing something they wanted to, he or she decides to de__ the activity).
2) ~ Co__ advocacy (publicly communicating a belief which runs co__ to a belief that the individual ho__, can result in the individual ch__ his or her or__ belief, in order for it to be in ac__ with his or her statement.)
3) ~ Justification of ef__ (a person’s tendency to attribute a va__ to an outcome, which they had to put ef__ into achieving, gr__ than the ob__ value of the outcome.)
Key way of reducing dissonance –> At__ Ch__
Se__ Pe__ theory (Bem, 1959)
- I make at__ about myself based on my be__.
dissonance
insufficient, external, derogate
counterattitudinal, counter, holds, changing, original, accordance
effort
value, effort, greater, objective
attitude change
self perception
attributions, behavior
Attitude Change:
El__ Li__ Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981):
- A du__-process theory!
- Suggested that pe__ can occur through two
(2) routes:
~ Ce__ route
~ Pe__ route
elaboration likelihood
dual
persuasion
central
peripheral
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion continued.. (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981)
Peripheral Route:
- N_ mo__, n_ ab__, and n_ op__.
- ->persuasion based on n__-m__ factors, I.e., at__, em__, cr__- (L_ elaboration)
- -> at__ ch__
Central Route:
- Mo__, ab__, and op__–> persuasion based on me__ factors more du__, more pr__-H__ elaboration
- -> at__ ch__
no motivation, no ability, no opportunity
non-message, attractiveness, emotion, credibility, little
attitude change
motivation, ability, opportunity, message, durable, predictive, higher
attitude change
Attitude Change:
When a topic has low personal relevance to a person, __ ex__ of a source is equally co__ regardless of argument st__.
When a topic has high personal relevance to a person, the st__ of the argument is what matters regardless of ex__ level of source.
Basically, expertise only really matters to a person changing their attitude if the topic has __ personal relevance.
high expertise, convincing, strength
strength, expertise
low
Attitude Change
- He__ Sy__ Model (Chaiken, 1980)
~Also du__-pr__ theory!
~ Similar to E__ L__ M__ - Suggested that pe__ can occur through two (2) routes:
~ Sy__ route
~ He__ route
heuristic systematic
dual-process
ELM (elaboration likelihood model)
persuasion
systematic
heuristic
Attitude Change:
Me__ Ex__ Effect (MEE; Zajonc, 1968):
- Hypothesized that “mere repeated ex__ of the in__ to a st__ is a sufficient condition for the en__ of [a persons’s] at__ toward it.”
- MEE
~ Over ti__ and many st__, the MEE is understood to be a ro__ effect of mo__ magnitude.
Study:
-the more frequently people were exposed to tu__ nonsense words, ch__-like characters, and ph__, the more fa__ their at__ towards it.
mere exposure
exposure, individual, stimulus, enhancement, attitude
time, studies, robust, moderate
turkish, chinese, photographs, favorable, attitudes
Attractiveness bias:
- We li__ and tr__ attractive people.
- Via pe__ route, we may be pe__ by their messages.
- (picture of Sa__ Mc__ advertising for AS_ _ _ New York).
like, trust
peripheral, persuaded
Sarah mclachlan, ASPCA
Credibility (Et__):
Credibility:
- Combines ex__ and tr__ of the communicator.
- Can be conveyed by cl__, tr__, ed__, etc. (picture of Op__ with Dr. O_).
ethos
expertness, trustworthiness
clothing, training, education
Oprah, Oz
The Sleeper Effect (Hovland & Weiss, 1951)
- Messages from an un__ source exert li__ influence in__ but over ti__ have the potential to sh__ people’s at__.
ex ~ “Now, Ted Cruz may not be a U.S. citizen. Right? But he’s an anchor baby in Canada. No, he’s an anchor baby. Ted Cruz is an anchor baby in Canada,” Trump said today at his event in Nashua, New Hampshire.” – Donald Trump.
Over time there is a di__ between the no_-cr__ source and the in__.
sleeper
unreliable, little, initially, time, shift, attitudes
disconnect, non-credible, information
Message Ch__ Influencing At__ Change:
-Message qu__:
~ St__ arguments and hi__ quality messages are more ef__ in general.
~ Especially more effective for those for whom the issue is re__.
What makes an argument st__?
- Highlighting de__ yet no__ consequences
- St__
- Cl__
- Lo__
- Arguing against se__-in__
characteristics, attitude
quality
strong, high, effective
relevant
strong desirable, novel straightforward clear logical self-interest
Message Ch__ Influencing At__ Change:
Vi__:
- Vi__ information embedded in pe__ na__ can be more persuasive than st__.
- Id\_\_ vi\_\_ effect: ~Fl\_\_-and-bl\_\_ victims are often powerful sources of pe\_\_. ~ Murder suicide that claimed life of OSU student He\_\_ Ca\_\_ or murder of Re\_\_ To\_\_.
characteristics, attitude
vividness
vivid, personal narrative, statistics
identifiable victim
flesh, blood, persuasion
heather campbell, reagan tokes
Timing:
When mu__ arguments are being presented, when should your argument be presented?
- Primacy and Recency
Haugtveldt & Wegener (1994) - Paradigm: Comprehensive ex__.
- IV: High or low re__. Pr_-co_ or co_-pr_.
Results:
~Those who th__ were more affected by the ea__ arguments – Pr__
~ Those who di__ th__ were more affected by the la__ arguments
– Re__
multiple
exams
relevant, pro-con, con-pro
thought, earlier, primacy
didn’t think, later, recency
Strong vs. Weak Arguments:
- Strong arguments pe__ more, particularly when people are paying at__
-St__:
~ Final exams are helpful to students since em__ look
fa__ upon schools that have co__ exams.
~ Co__ exams produce more kn__ graduates.
- We__:
~ Other Bi_-1_ schools are also instituting comprehensive exams, so Oh__ St__ should also.
~ Comprehensive exams waste pa__.
persuade, attention
strong
employers, favorably, comprehensive
comprehensive, knowledgeable
weak
big-10, Ohio State
paper
Lying as Pe__:
Lying
- Why the ability to lie?
~ Pe__ people you be__ something you do no_.
- How good are people on average?
~ __% is ch__, people score __% (Ekman & O’Sullivan, 1991).
persuasion
persuading, believe, not
50, chance
57
Descriptive vs. Injunctive Norms:
- Descriptive norms
~ Describing what people ac__ d_. - Injunctive norms (pr__)
~ Describing what people sh__ d_.
~ Cialdini’s work with P_ _s
actually do
prescriptive
should do
PSAs
Ta__ Factors Influencing Attitude Change
Am__ of Thinking:
Early research focused on ability to un__ messages.
Cognitive El__:
-Extent to which a person will th__ about an is__- re__ message.
- In__ dif__ measure
-Need for co__
~ Degree to which people enjoy th__ deeply about pu__ or complex pr__.
Am__ of th__ example questions:
- I would prefer co__ to si__ problems.
- Th__ is not my idea of fu_.
target
amount
understand
elaboration
think, issue-relevant
individual difference
cognition
thinking, puzzles, problems
amount, thinking
complex, simple
thinking, fun
Ta__ Factors Influencing Attitude Change
How a person fe__.
Mo__ or Af__:
- Te__ em__ state (typically induced by ex__ to explore effects on pe__).
Ha__:
~ Po__ mood associated w/ __ sy__ processing, and __ reliance on he__.
Sadness:
~ Sadness associated with/ gr__ sy__ processing.
Fear:
~ Fe__-inducing st__ plus information on how to re__ fear can be persuasive.
target
feels
mood, affect
temporary emotional
experimenter, persuasion
happiness
positive, less, systematic, more, heuristics
greater systematic
fear, stimulus, reduce
Effects of Happiness and Sadness on Persuasion:
- Bless, Bohner, Schwarz & Strack, 1990
Paradigm: Had participants write about a ha__ or sa_ event. Then had them listen to st__/we__ arguments in favor of raising tu__. Measured amount of attitude ch__.
- _ _: Manipulated mo__ AND st__ of argument
- _ _: Attitude ch__
Results:
- in a ha__ mood, st__ of argument made n_ di__ in persuasion-convinced ea__ in both conditions.
- in a s__ mood, st__ arguments much more co__ than we__ arguments.
happy, sad
strong/weak
tuition
change
IV: mood, strength
DV: change
happy, strength, no difference
easier
sad, strong, convincing, weak
Fe__ and Persuasion:
Leventhal, Watts, & Pagano, 1967:
-participants in experiment all smoked __ cigarettes a day
IV:
- no film, pamphlet
- film, no pamphlet
- film, pamphlet
Results:
- fi__ and pa__ condition st__ smoking the most after 3 months.
- n_ fi__ and pa__ condition actually in__.
fear
70
film, pamphlet, stopped
no film, pamphlet, increased
Self-Validation Hypothesis:
Co__:
- Me__-co__ process
- Se__-Va__ Hypothesis (Petty, Brinol, & Tormala, 2002)
Suggested that the degree of co__ people have in their own th__ will influence pe__.
When p__ thoughts dominate, greater confidence in those thoughts __ persuasion
When n__ thoughts dominate, greater confidence in those thoughts __ persuasion
Self-Validation Hypothesis:
- Head-nodding! (Brinol & Petty, 2003)
~ Head nodding can ___ the pe__ of a message.
confidence
meta-cognitive
self validation
confidence, thoughts, persuasibility
positive, increases
negative, decreases
increase, persuasiveness
Compliance:
- Ag__ to a re__.
- Compliance’s relationship to pe__.
- Compliance and sa__.
agreeing, request
persuasion
sales
Compliance:
- Ea__ studies
~ Tu__ and po__ –> Much of our responses are re__! Even when people as_ us to do something fo_ them, we often au__ respond with a y__!
Langer et al., (1978)
- “Excuse me, I have five pages, may I use the copy machine because I’m in a rush?” (__%)
- “Excuse me, I have five pages, may I use the copy machine?” (__%)
- “Excuse me, I have five pages, may I use the copy machine because I have to make some copies?” (__%)
–> So long as any re__ is given, we are likely to say ye_. Just as the tu__ responds to the so__, we respond to a re__, regardless of reason qu__.
early
Turkeys, polecats
reflexive
ask, for
automatically, yes
94%
60%
93%
reason, yes, turkey, sound, reason, quality
Methods of Compliance:
Re__:
- Changing attitudes via the old ‘gi__ and ta__.’
- Regan (1971) study with coca-cola and raffle tickets
~ Can of coke cost $., people on average purchased $. worth of raffle tickets. - Pr__:
~ Wa__ bo__ and cr__ card companies
Fo__-in-the-do__ technique:
- Works via co__
- Tr_ a product with no ob__.
~Large, unobtrusive “Drive carefully” in front lawns – __%
~ Another group first asked to sign pe__ in favor of safe dr__. __% agreed to large, unobtrusive sign.
reciprocity
give, take
.10, .50
pregiving
water bottles, credit
foot, door commitment try, obligations 17% petition, driving, 55%
Methods of Compliance:
-Do__-in-the-fa__ technique:
~ Works via mutual co__ (you ga__ a little, so I’ll gi__ a little)
Cialdini, 1975:
- Asked people to chaperon a group of juv. delinquents on a trip to the zoo. –> __% refused
- Another group was asked to spend 2 hours a week counseling juv. delinquents for at least 2 years and then asked. –> __% agreed!
Co__:
-Works because people al__ feel co__.
~ Lo_-ba__
~ Un__ retailers during gi__-gi__ holidays
Sc__:
- Utilizes re__
~ In__ that are happening right no_!
door, face
concessions
gave, give
83%
50%
commitment
already, committed
low-balling
understocking, gift-giving
scarcity
reactance
incentives, now
Methods of Compliance:
“Go__-cop” and “ba_-cop”:
- Increases li__ toward sa__.
- Co__ effect
So\_\_ Pr\_\_: - Why do so many sitcoms used “canned” la\_\_? - Mo\_\_ is better ~ Li\_\_ at night clubs, restaurants ~ Adding bi\_\_ to tip jars
good, bad
liking, salesperson
contrast
social proof laughter more lines bills
Methods of Compliance:
Ba__ and Sw__:
- Involves offering one co__ but then sw__ once the potential sales ta__ is in the st__.
- Utilizes co__.
bait, switch
commodity, switching, target, store
commitment
Re__ Persuasion and Compliance:
Mi__ processing!
- Much of pe__ (pe__ route) and co__ (fi__-ac__ patterns) are achieved when we are ‘mi__.’
Ro__ playing situations where pe__ or co__ might occur
- McAlister et al., 1980 showed ro__-playing helped reduce adolescent sm__.
Ino__ training (McGuire, 1964)
- Bo__ attitudes through exposure to sm__ amounts of pe__ messages.
~ Accessible co__-ar__
~ Elicits re__!
resisting
mindful
persuasion, peripheral, compliance, fixed-action, mindless
role, persuasion, compliance
role, smoking
inoculation
bolstering, small, persuasive
counter-arguments
reactance
How can attitudes be measured?
Two major distinctions: - Ex\_\_, se\_\_-re\_\_ measures Assumptions: ~ person un\_\_ the qu\_\_. ~ All people in\_\_ question in sa\_\_ way ~ People have ac\_\_ to the information ~ People ca_ and wi_ report information tr\_\_
- Im__, and be__ measures
explicit, self-report understands, question interpret, same access can, will, truthfully
implicit, behavioral
Explicit Measures of Attitude:
-Li__-type scales
~Measures ag__ with a st__
ex: I am ha__.
1 2 3 4 5
di__ ag__
ne__ al__
- Se__-di__ scales
ex: I am:
Sad…………………………………Happy
-select an appropriate po__ on a scale between two bi__ adjectives
likert
agreement, statement
happy
disagree agree
never always
semantic-differential
position, bipolar
Explicit Measures:
How can attitude measures better assess st__ of attitude?
-Fa__ (1995) suggests measurement of attitude ac__.
Response la__:
- Amount of ti__ to re__ to an at__ item
- Person who responds in 750ms will have a __ attitude than someone who responds in 4 seconds.
Kr__ and Pe__ (1995) argue that measuring attitude ce__:
-Extent to which an at__ is highly co__ with other related co__.
strength
fazio, accessibility
latency
time, respond, attitude
stronger
Krosnick, Petty
centrality
attitude, correlated, concepts
Implicit Measures:
Pr__ Method Examples:
-Le__ (Word) De__ Tasks
~ After seeing the word ‘Wh__,’ participants are quicker to
id__ the word ‘Sm__’ as word (Dovidio, Evans & Tyler, 1986).
-Word Co__ Tasks
~ After being primed for Af__-Am__, individuals are
more likely to complete the stem HOS___________ with ‘hos__’ rather than ‘hos__.’
-Be__ Interpretation Tasks
~After being primed for Af__-Am__, individuals will
rate the behavior of ‘Donald,’ an am__ character, as more ho__.
priming
lexical, decision
white, identity, smart
completion
african-american
hostile, hosptital
behavior
african-american
ambiguous
hostile
Implicit Measures:
Implicit As__ Test (Greenwald et al., )
-often takes longer when ca__ or ba_ are one category and af__-am__ or go__ are the other because the associations aren’t as st__.
associations
caucasian, bad
african-american, good
strong
