Sociology-theory and methods-social policy

Question 1

What is social policy?

Answer 1

It is generally thought of as the plans and actions of governments to tackle ‘social problems’, especially the welfare of the population in areas such as education and health. Many sociologist’s are interested in solving social problems and much of their research produces policy proposals for government to act upon

Question 2

What needs to be done in order to understand the role of sociology in relation to social policy?

Answer 2

Distinguish between social problems and sociological problems

Question 3

What does Worsley say social problems are?

Answer 3

“A social problem is some piece of social behaviour that causes public friction and/or private misery and calls for collective action to solve it’

Question 4

What is an example of social problems, according to Worsley?

Answer 4

Poverty, education achievement, juvenile delinquency and divorce may all be seen as social problems by members of society, and governments may be called upon to produce policies to tackle them

Question 5

According to Worsley, what are sociological problems?

Answer 5

“Any pattern of relationships that calls for explanation”. It is any piece of behaviour that we wish to make sense of

Question 6

What may be an example of a sociological problem?

Answer 6

This may be something that society regards as a social problem, eg why some people are poor or commit crime. But it can also include behaviour that society doesn’t normally regard as a problem, eg why people are prosperous or law-abiding. ‘Normal’ behaviour is just as interesting to sociologists as behaviour that people see as a social problem and some sociologists show little/no interest in solving social problems. They see their goal as being to discover knowledge for its own sake-however some are interested in solving social problems through their research

Question 7

What are examples of sociologists who are interested in solving social problems through their research?

Answer 7

Sociologists who feel strongly about poverty have conducted research aimed at discovering solutions. Similarly, many sociologists are employed by the Home Office. These sociologists often have a direct input into making policies and evaluating their effectiveness, eg in reducing crime

Question 8

What are some of the factors that may affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 8

Electoral popularity, ideological and policy preferences of governments, interest groups, globalisation, critical sociology, cost, and funding sources

Question 9

How can electoral popularity affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 9

Research findings and recommendations might point to a policy that would be unpopular with voters

Question 10

How can ideological and policy preferences of governments affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 10

If the researcher’s value stance or perspective is similar to the political ideology of the government, they may stand more chance of influencing its policies

Question 11

How can interest groups affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 11

These are pressure groups that seek to influence government policies in their own interests, eg business groups may succeed in persuading government not to raise the minimum wage, even though this might reduce poverty

Question 12

How can globalisation affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 12

Social policy isn’t just made by nation states in isolation. International organisations such as the European Union and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) may influence the social policies of individual governments, eg the IMF’s structural adjustment programmes’ have required less developed countries to introduce fees for education and health care as a condition for aid, despite evidence from social scientists that this makes development less likely

Question 13

How can critical sociology affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 13

Sociologists who are critical of the state and powerful groups, such as Marxists, may be regarded as too extreme, hostile or impractical and therefore unlikely to influence policy

Question 14

How can cost affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 14

Even if the government is sympathetic to the sociologist’s findings, it may not have sufficient funds to implement an appropriate policy based on them, or it may have other spending priorities and commitments

Question 15

How can funding sources affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy?

Answer 15

In some cases, sociologists may tone down their findings and policy recommendations so as to fit in with their paymasters’ wishes. Similarly, policymakers may recruit sociologists who share their assumptions and political values. The research findings may then be used to justify what the policymakers intended to do in the first place. Similarly, research institutes often have particular political sympathies, eg some are seen as left leaning while others have right wing sympathies. Politicians seeking a particular result to justify their favour policies can be selective in which research institutes they turn to for research

Question 16

Apart from direct influence on policymakers, what else do social scientists’ ideas influence?

Answer 16

They sometimes become part of mainstream culture and influence the way people see social problems. This in turn can affect the policies that governments produce

Question 17

What is an example of a social scientists ideas becoming mainstream culture and influencing government policies?

Answer 17

Bowlby’s idea that young children’s relationships with their mother are crucial for normal development became widely accepted by many people. When this happens, it can influence the climate of opinion in favour of policies that reflect these social science derived ideas, eg it may have influenced policies on day care, young offenders, etc

Question 18

Overall, how much does sociology influence social policy?

Answer 18

Sociological research is only one possible element in shaping social policy. Ultimately, any policy is the result of a political decision by those in power. Often those with power are the ones who are able to define what is and isn’t a problem, and if anything should be done about it

Question 19

What does Burden say about social policies?

Answer 19

Social policies “cannot be very well understood if they are simply treated as ‘neutral’ attempts to deal with ‘problems’. Indeed, what is to count as a problem is itself generally a matter of political debate”

Question 20

What did early positivists believe about social policy?

Answer 20

Early positivists such as Comte and Durkheim took the view that sociology was a science and would discover both the cause of social problems and scientifically based solutions to them. As such, their approach was part of the Enlightenment Project to use science and reason to improve society. Eg Durkheim’s analysis led him to propose a meritocratic education system and the abolition of inherited wealth as ways to foster a sense that society was fair, which would promote social cohesion

Question 21

How do functionalists see social policy?

Answer 21

They see society as based on value consensus and free from fundamental conflicts. Like positivists, they see the state as serving the interests of society as a whole, producing and implementing rational social policies for the good of all. These policies help society run more smoothly and efficiently. Eg educational policies are seen as promoting equal opportunity and social integration while health and housing policies assist the family in performing its functions more effectively

Question 22

What do functionalists and positivists believe about the sociologist’s role?

Answer 22

It is to provide the state with objective, scientific information. By investigating social problems and discovering their causes, sociologists provide the necessary information on which the state can base its policies. In this view, the sociologists is like the medical researcher. Just as medical research discovers causes of diseases as basis for prevention/cure, sociologists role is to investigate social problems scientifically, providing state with objective information about extent and explanation of causes as well as possible ‘cures’ - policy recommendations

Question 23

What type of policy to functionalists favour?

Answer 23

They favour social policies that are sometimes referred to as ‘piecemeal social engineering’. In other words, they favour a cautious approach, tackling one specific issue at a time, however this approach has been criticised

Question 24

Why has the piecemeal approach been criticised?

Answer 24

Eg Marxists argue that educational policies aimed at equalising opportunity for children of different classes are often defeated by the influence of poverty in wider society. In other words, social problems such as underachievement are simply aspects of a wider structure of class inequality, and so we need to change the basic structure of society in order to solve these specific problems

Question 25

What is the social democratic perspective on social policy?

Answer 25

It favour a major redistribution of wealth and income from the rich to the poor. Sociologists adopting this perspective, such as Townsend argue that they should be involved in researching social problems and making policy recommendations to eradicate them. Eg Townsend conducted researched on poverty. On the basis of his findings, he made recommendations for policies such as higher benefit levels, and more public spending on health, education and welfare

Question 26

What was the Black Report and what was it’s effect?

Answer 26

Similar to Townsend, the Black Report on class inequalities in health made 37 far reaching policy recommendations for reducing these deep rooted inequalities. These included free school meals for all children, improved working conditions and more spending to improve housing. The Labour government had originally commissioned the report in 1977 but it was only completed in 1980, the year after Thatcher’s Conservative government came into power. Her government refused to implement the report’s recommendations on the grounds of cost, and tried to restrict its publication

Question 27

Why do Marxists criticise the social democratic perspective?

Answer 27

While they agree that social problems such as class inequalities in health are deep rooted, they reject the idea that even policies as far reaching as those proposed by the Black Report are enough to solve the problem. In their view, it is capitalism that is ultimately responsible for these inequalities and so the problem cannot be solved without abolishing capitalism. They also argue that in any event, as the government response to the Black Report showed, the capitalist state is unlikely to introduce costly public spending policies to benefit the working class. Thus, rational social policies proposed by sociologists such as Townsend will fall on deaf ears as far as policymakers are concerned

Question 28

Why do postmodernists criticise the social democratic perspective?

Answer 28

Postmodernists criticise attempts by sociologists to influence policy. for postmodernists, it is impossible to discover objective truth. All knowledge produced by research is uncertain, and so sociological findings cannot provide a satisfactory basis for policy making. In this view, sociologists can only take the role of ‘interpreters’, offering one view of reality among many, and not the role of legislators, as modernist sociologists such as functionalists and social democrats have tried to do

Question 29

How do Marxists see society and social policy?

Answer 29

They see society as divided by a fundamental conflict of interest in which the ruling capitalist class exploit the labour of the working class. Unlike functionalists, they do not see the state and its policies as benefiting all members of society. In the Marxist view, the state represents the ruling class and its social policies serve the interests of capitalism, not those of society as a whole

Question 30

Why do Marxists see social policy as benefiting capitalism rather than society as a whole?

Answer 30

Policies provide ideological legitimation, they maintain the labour force for further exploitation, and they are a means of preventing revolution

Question 31

How do social policies provide ideological legitimation?

Answer 31

They do it to mask the capitalist exploitation, eg the welfare state gives capitalism a ‘caring face’ making it appear the system cares about the poor, sick and old

Question 32

How do social policies maintain the labour force for further exploitation?

Answer 32

Eg the NHS serves capitalism by keeping workers fit enough to work

Question 33

How do social policies act as a means of preventing revolution?

Answer 33

They do this when class conflict intensifies and threatens the stability of capitalism. Eg Marxists see the polices that created the welfare state after WW2 as a way of burying off working class opposition to capitalism

Question 34

On the other hand, what do Marxists recognise about social policies?

Answer 34

That they do sometimes provide real, if limited, benefits to the working class. However, such gains are constantly threatened by the reversal by capitalism’s tendency to go into periodic crises of profitability, leading to cuts in state spending on welfare

Question 35

What do Marxists believe about research into social problems caused by capitalism?

Answer 35

Research that reveals the unpleasant truth about the social problems capitalism creates will not be used to formulate policies to solve these problems, as the fate of the Black Report shows. In fact, for Marxists, such problems cannot be solved by the capitalist state in any case, since capitalism is based on putting profits before human needs. The only solution to social problems is a revolution to overthrow capitalism and create a classless society

Question 36

What do Marxists believe about the role of sociologists?

Answer 36

The sociologists main role should be to criticise capitalist social policy, not to serve the capitalist state. The sociologist must reveal the exploitation that underpins capitalism, and the way in which the ruling class use social policies to mask this exploitation and buy off revolt with minor concessions

Question 37

What do critics argue about the Marxist views on social policy and the role of sociologists?

Answer 37

Critics argue their views are impractical and unrealistic. Social democrats can criticise them for rejecting the idea that research can help bring about progressive policies within the capitalist system. Eg, poverty researchers have at times had some positive impact on policy

Question 38

How do feminists see society and social policies?

Answer 38

Feminists see society as based on conflict, but in their view the fundamental conflict is between genders, not classes. Society is patriarchal, benefiting men at omen’s expense, and the state perpetuates women’s subordination through its social policies. Eg family policies may assume that the ‘normal’ family is a conventional nuclear family with a heterosexual married couple. Thus, if the state assumes this and offers benefits to married couples but not to cohabiting ones, these policies may produce a self fulfilling prophecy, encouraging the kind of family that the state assumed to be the norm in the first place and making it more difficult for people to live in the other kinds of family

Question 39

What impact on policy has feminist research had?

Answer 39

Feminist research has had an impact in a number of policy areas, eg in education, it has influenced policies such as learning materials that promote more positive images of females and training to sensitise teachers to the need to avoid gender bias. Many of these policies reflect the liberal feminist view that anti-discrimination reforms will ultimately bring about gender equality

Question 40

What impact on policy have radical feminist ideas had?

Answer 40

Radical feminists regard men as the direct oppressors of women, especially through the family. They therefore favour separatism-the idea that women need to separate themselves from men to be free from patriarchy. One policy that reflects this is refuges or women escaping domestic violence, eg Women’s Aid Federation support a national network of over 500 such services, often with funding from government

Question 41

Overall, what impact has feminist sociological research had?

Answer 41

It is clear that feminist sociological research has had some impact on social policies in areas that affect women, in part due to the success of the broader feminist movement in gaining greater political influence since the 1970s. However, many feminists reject the view that reformist social policies can liberate women. Eg both Marxist and radical feminists call for more far-reaching changes that the existing state cannot deliver

Question 42

What do the New Right believe about the State?

Answer 42

They believe the state should have only minimal involvement in society. In particular, they are opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems. In their view, state intervention in areas such as family life, income support, education and health care robs people out of their freedom to make their own choices and undermines their sense of responsibility. This in turn leads to greater social problems, such as crime and delinquency

Question 43

What does Murray argue about the state and welfare?

Answer 43

He argues that generous welfare benefits act as ‘perverse incentives’ that weaken the family’s self reliance. They encourage the growth of a dependency culture and an underclass of lone mothers, undisciplined children, and irresponsible fathers who abandon their families. For this reason, Murray favours a reduction is state spending on welfare

Question 44

What do the New Right believe about social policy?

Answer 44

They are highly critical of many existing policies. However, they are not opposed to social policy as such, and they see the role of sociologists as being to propose alternative policies. These policies should aim to restore individuals’ responsibility for their own welfare, rather than leaving it to the state-an example of this is the Breakdown Britain report

Question 45

What is the Breakdown Britain report?

Answer 45

It is a report by a conservative group, ‘the Social Justice Policy Group’, that proposes a range of new social policies aimed at the family. These include marriage preparation and parenting classes, and support from the tax and benefit system for mothers who stay at home. The report’s main point is that governments have stripped citizens of responsibility for their own welfare and neglected the support networks that give people their quality of life. The role of social policy should be to enable people to help themselves, rather than the welfare state attempting, and failing, to do it for them

Question 46

What has been the influence of New Right thinking?

Answer 46

Because of its ideological opposition to the state having a major role in welfare, New Right thinking has tended to be particularly attractive to the Conservative Party. However, some Labour policies have shown the influence of New Right views, eg New Labour regards a married couple as normally the best place to bring up children. While not seeing a major role for the state in welfare, the New Right support a strong ‘law and order’ policy and research by right realists such as Wilson and Kelling has been influential in introducing zero tolerance policies

Question 47

Why has research used by the New Right been questioned?

Answer 47

The validity of the data on which Murray bases his claims about a link between absent fathers and delinquency has been challenged. Similarly, New Right policy proposals often use the findings of politically sympathetic research institutes