Psychology-issues and debates Flashcards
What is gender bias?
The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
What did Hare-Mustin and Marecek propose?
There are two different ways that theories may be biased. Alpha bias and beta bias. The aim is to produce theories that can claim to have universality
What is alpha bias?
A tendency to assume there are real differences, and exaggerate differences between men and women. The consequence is that that theories devalue one gender in comparison to another
What is beta bias?
A tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women. Such theories tend either to ignore questions about the lives of women, or assume that insights derived from studies of men will apply equally well to women
What is universality?
The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences
What is androcentrism?
Centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women. For most its life psychology (and society in general) has been very much male-dominated. Almost all psychologists were and are men, and therefore the theories they produce tend to represent a male world-view. This is androcentrism and may result in an alpha or beta bias
What is an example of alpha bias in research?
Freud’s research. Freud’s theories reflected the culture in which he lived. In 19th century, men were more powerful and more educated, and regarded as superior to women. In his alpha-biased theory of psychoanalysis Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity-he exaggerated the difference between men and women. As Josselson points out, in Freud’s theory, women must be morally inferior due to a weaker identification with their mothers, because the superego cannot develop
What is an example of beta bias in research?
Stress research (fight-or-flight response). Biological research usually conducted with male animals because in females the variations in hormone levels would make research more difficult. It is assumed that such male-only samples would not matter because what is true for males is true for females. In stress research it was assumed fight-or-flight response was universal, until Taylor et al challenged this, providing evidence of females producing a tend-and-befriend response which was adaptive for them. The beta bias meant a real difference was ignored
How can the issues of gender bias be solved?
It would be wrong to try to eradicate gender differences as a way to resolve the gender bias issue. That approach is in itself a beta bias. The solution lies in recognising the differences but not superiority of one gender over another (universality), eg moral reasoning research
What was Kohlberg’s theory?
He produced a very influential theory of moral development, suggesting moral decisions we make are based on an ethic of justice. He based his theory on research with boys and men where he asked them to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations that were related to fairness. This is an example of beta bias as he assumed the male responses would apply to all people
What did Gilligan point out about Kohlberg’s research?
The dilemmas used were also biased-they had a male orientation as they were concerned with justice rather than being concerned with, eg, hurting someone else’s feelings (morals)
What happened when Kohlberg tested women?
He found they were less morally developed than men-a classic outcome of alpha boas. His original beta bias meant that he now exaggerated the differences between men and women
What did Gilligan’s own theory show?
Her own theory and research showed that women favoured a care orientation, whereas men favoured a justice orientation. Gilligan’s approach showed that men and women are different, but it was not biased because neither kind of moral reasoning was considered as ‘better’-they are just different. (Universality)
What are the evaluation points for gender in psychology: gender bias?
Feminist psychology, bias in research methods, reverse alpha bias, avoiding a beta bias, and assumptions need to be examined
How is ‘feminist psychology’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
Feminist perspective counters androcentrism. Argues ‘difference’ psychology arises from biological explanations of behaviour. The alternative, social constructionist approach, aims to understand behaviour in terms of social processes and so find a way to greater equality. Feminist psychology agrees there are real biologically based differences but socially determined stereotypes make a gar greater contribution to perceived differences. For any social change we must revise out ‘facts’ about gender. One way to redress balance is to use evidence that women may be inferior to provide greater support eg Eagly acknowledged women may be less effective leaders but this should be used to develop suitable training programmes to create a future with more women as leaders
How is ‘bias in research methods’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
If psychological theories/studies are gender biased, a consequence is research may find differences between genders. May not be that the genders differ, but the methods used to test/observe them are biased, so males and females appear to be different. Another issue is gender of researcher. Rosenthal found male experimenters more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants than males. Result was male participants appeared to perform less well on tasks assigned. Feminists argue lab experiments disadvantage women as the findings created in controlled world tell us little about experience of women outside these settings
How is ‘avoiding a beta bias’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
Beta bias has consequences for women. Equal treatment (a beta bias) under the law has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities. However, Hare-Mustin and Marecek point that arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women’s special needs and differences in power between men and women. In society where one group holds most power, seemingly neural actions end up benefiting the group with power. Eg equal parental leave ignores biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding and special needs of women so disadvantages women
How is ‘assumptions need to be examined’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
Examples of gender bias continue unchallenged in many theories. Eg Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portrays women as choosy and males as ones who compete to be chosen. Pays, in terms of ultimate reproductive success, for females to be selective as costs are high. Explained in terms of female ‘coyness’ as means of masking interest in males when making choices whereas men are more explicit due to competition. This view has recently been challenged as being rooted in Victorian ideas that women are coy and men are aggressive. It has been recognised now women are equally competitive and aggressive when the need arises
What is cultural bias?
The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases judgement
What do Hare-Mustin and Marecek suggest about cultural bias?
Suggested that before being able to decide if there are cultural differences one must consider the extent to which any research (theory or study) is biased. Only then can the ‘truth’ be disentangled from the way psychological research has found it
What is alpha bias in cultural bias?
Refers to theories that assume real and enduring differences between cultural groups. Eg distinction that is often made between individualist and collectivist cultures. Eg we would expect members of individualistic cultures to be less conformist as they are less oriented towards group norms. To assess validity of this view, Takano and Osaka reviewed 15 studies that compared US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivism. 14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity. Findings suggest the individualism/collectivism dimension may not be a real distinction, suggesting it is no longer useful
What is alpha bias in cultural bias?
Refers to theories that assume real and enduring differences between cultural groups. Eg distinction that is often made between individualist and collectivist cultures. Eg we would expect members of individualistic cultures to be less conformist as they are less oriented towards group norms. To assess validity of this view, Takano and Osaka reviewed 15 studies that compared US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivism. 14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity. Findings suggest the individualism/collectivism dimension may not be a real distinction, suggesting it is no longer useful
What is beta bias in cultural bias?
Refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences by assuming all people are the same so it is reasonable to use the same theories/methods with all cultural groups. Eg intelligence testing-psychologists use IQ tests devised by Western psychologists to study intelligence in many different cultures. Psychologists assume their view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally. Eg Western societies see intelligence as something within the individual but a collectivist culture such as Ugandan society sees it as a functional relationship depending on shared knowledge between individual and society. Means IQ tests (imposed etic) make non-Western people appear less intelligent
What is ethnocentrism?
Refers to the use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups. There is a tendency to view the beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as ‘normal’ and even superior, whereas those of other groups are ‘strange’ or deviant
How does ethnocentrism relate to alpha bias?
Ethnocentrism is an example of alpha bias because one’s own culture is considered to be different and better, and the consequence of this is that other cultures and their practices are devalues. An example of this is individuals attitudes towards attachment where independence is valued and dependence is seen as undesirable. In collectivist cultures, dependence tends to be more highly valued
How does ethnocentrism relate to beta bias?
Ethnocentrism can also lead to a beta bias, if psychologists believe their world view is the only view. Eg the case of IQ testing results from ethnocentrism where it was believed it was appropriate to use American IQ tests all over the world because there was an assumption that the American standard was universal
What is the opposite to ethnocentrism?
In a way, cultural relativism is the opposite of ethnocentrism. It is the idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and that in studying another culture we need to try to understand the way that a particular culture sees the world
How does cultural relativism relate to alpha bias?
Cultural relativism can also lead to alpha bias where the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals. Eg Mead’s research in Papua New Guinea where she initially concluded there were significant gender differences due to culture but later recognised that there were universals (probably related to biology)-that the men in all cultures were more aggressive than the women
How does cultural relativism relate to beta bias?
Cultural relativism is often discussed in context of defining mental disorders. In case of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality, behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another. Eg, one symptom of schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices, however, this is an experience that is common in some cultures. By assuming that the same rules apply universally (a beta bias), we may diagnose some people as mentally ill, but that diagnosis is relative to our culture
What are the evaluation points for culture in psychology: cultural bias?
Indigenous psychologies, the emic-etic distinction, bias in research methods, consequences of cultural bias, and the worldview psychology community
How is ‘indigenous psychologies’ an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
One way to counter ethnocentrism is to encourage indigenous psychologies-the development of different groups of theories in different counties. Eg Afrocentrism is a movement whose central proposition is all black people have roots in Africa and psychological theories concerning such people must, therefore, be African-centred and must express African values. Afrocentrism disputes view that European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour that apply equally to Europeans and non-Europeans alike. It suggests values and cultures of Europeans at worst devalue non-European people and at best are irrelevant to life and culture of people of African descent
How is ‘the emic-etic distinction’ an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Afrocentrism is an ‘emic’ approach-one which emphasises uniqueness of every culture by focusing on culturally specific phenomena. Problem with such approaches is findings tend to be significant only to understanding of behaviour within that culture. An ‘etic’ approach seeks universals of behaviour. One way to achieve this, while also avoiding cultural bias, is to use indigenous researchers in each cultural setting eg in Buss’ classic study of mate preferences. Data collected from people in 37 cultures to look at universal behaviour. In each setting there three local researchers (one translated questionnaire from English to native language, a second translated answers back to English, a third resolved any discrepancies)
How is ‘bias in research methods’ an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Cultural bias in psychology can be dealt with by using studies with samples from different cultural groups. This was not the situation at the end of the last century, eg Smith and Bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology in 1998 and found 66% studies American, 32% European and 2% from rest of the world. Sears also reported 82% research studies used undergraduates as participants in psychology studies and 51% were psychology students. A more recent study found 67% were American psychology students. This suggests a considerable amount of psychology is based on middle-class, academic, young adults, who incidentally are often male. Psychology findings are not only unrepresentative on a global scale, but also within Western culture
How is ‘consequences of cultural bias’ an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
One of the most infamous examples of damage done by psychologists through cultural bias was US Army IQ test used just before WW1. Tests showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ, and African-Americans were at the bottom of the scale with lowest mental age. Data from these tests had profound effect on attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people-black people and people from south-eastern Europe. Data led to enduring stereotypes concerning certain ethnic groups and their IQ (Gould)
How is ‘the worldview psychology community’ an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Researchers in psychology, like most people, travel much more than 50 years ago, meaning they have increased understanding of other cultures at a personal and professional level. Academics hold international conferences where researchers from many countries and cultures regularly meet to discuss/exchange ideas. This is how Buss found his researchers in 37 cultures. This means there is much greater exchange of ideas, which should reduce ethnocentrism in psychology, enable an understanding of cultural relativism and mean that real differences are identified and valued
What is determinism?
Behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon an individual
What are the types of determinism?
Biological determinism, environmental determinism, psychic determinism, and scientific determinism
What is biological determinism?
Research into human genome is producing increasing evidence of genetic influences on behaviour. More we discover, more it appears that our behaviour (not just physical characteristics) are determined by our genes. Eg research on intelligence has identified particular genes found in people with high intelligence, such as the IGF2R gene (Hill et al). Genes in turn, influence brain structure and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine that are often implicated in behaviour, eg the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviourists believe all behaviour is caused by previous experience, through the processes of classical and operant conditioning (which may be direct or indirect) eg how phobias may develop as a consequence of conditioning-a new stimulus response relationship can be learned. Such a phobic response is also unlearned through conditioning (eg systematic desensitisation). The principles of learning theory have been applied to may areas of behaviour, such as aggression and eating behaviour
What is psychic determinism?
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience, i.e. both internal and external forces. Behaviour is driven by libido which focuses sequentially on erogenous zones. If a child is frustrated or overindulged (external forces) at any stage during development, then libido remains tied to relevant erogenous zone and individual is then fixated on that zone. The method of obtaining satisfaction that characterised the stage will dominate their adult personality
What is scientific determinism?
Scientific research is based on belief that all events have a cause. An IV is manipulated to observe the causal effect on a DV. Eg Harlow’s research on attachment involving IV (wire mother with milk or cloth covered) and a DV (attachment formed). The result demonstrated contact comfort, not food, determined the formation of an attachment
What is free will?
Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour
How does the humanistic approach link to free will?
Humanistic psychologists such as Maslow and Rogers argues self-determination was necessary part of human behaviour. Without it, healthy self-development and self-actualisation are not possible. Rogers claimed as long as an individual remains controlled by other people or things, they cannot take responsibility for their behaviour therefore cannot begin to change it. Things outside a person’s sense of self remain beyond personal control. Eg a person who says ‘I lied but that isn’t like me’ does not admit they are a liar and therefore will not seek to change the behaviour. Only when an individual takes self-responsibility (self-determination) is personal growth possible, resulting in psychological health
How does moral responsibility link to free will?
Basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of own actions, i.e. can exercise free will. The law states children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility, but otherwise there is the assumption, in our society, that ‘normal’ adult behaviour is self-determined. In other words, that humans are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experience
What is one solution to the debate of free will and determinism?
To claim free will and determinism are not compatible. A position called soft determinism (opposite to hard determinism). Eg it can be argued that everything is determined by your biology and past experiences, but this leaves a persons with some choices that can be made. This was the view of Heather
What did Heather propose?
Behaviour may be predictable but this doesn’t make it inevitable. Individuals are free to choose their behaviour, but this is usually from within a fairly limited repertoire
What did James suggest?
That we should separate behaviour into a physical and mental realm. The former is determine, whereas the latter is subject to free will
What did Valentine claim?
That behaviour is always determined-it just sometimes appears to be less determined: behaviour that is highly constrained by a situation appears involuntary, whereas behaviour that is less constrained by a situation appears voluntary. This was supported by Westcott’s study
What are the evaluation points for determinism?
Genetic determinism, environmental determinism, scientific determinism, and does it matter?
How is ‘genetic determinism’ an evaluation point for determinism?
Doubtful that 100% genetic determination will ever be found for any behaviour, eg studies that compare identical twins find about 80% similarity on intelligence or about 40% for depression. Therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour
How is ‘environmental determinism’ an evaluation point for determinism?
The concordance rates referred to with genetic determinism equally show that environment cannot be the sole determining factor in behaviour; there is at least some genetic input. Therefore environmental explanations cannot solely determine behaviour
How is ‘scientific determinism’ an evaluation point for determinism?
Dennett argues in the physical sciences it is not accepted there is no such thin as total determinist. Chaos theory proposes very small change sin initial conditions can subsequently result in major changes (‘butterfly effect’). Conclusion is causal relationships are probabilistic rather than determinist. Determinist explanations tend to oversimplify human behaviour. They may be suitable for non-human animals but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors eg cognitive factors. This means the idea of ever finding a simple determinist formula from psychological research is unrealistic
