Psychology-Research Methods Flashcards
What does aim mean?
The aim is what the researcher wants to find out. It is the general statement regarding what a study is about
What is the independent variable?
Things that are manipulated or changed by the psychologist
What is the dependant variable?
The thing that changes as a result of the independent variable, the variable that is measured by the psychologist
What does operationalising variables mean?
Clear definitions of what the variables are and exactly how we are going to measure them (making them specific to the research and what is being studied)
What is a hypothesis?
Prediction regarding how you think your investigation will find out
How do the aim and hypothesis link?
The aim is why, the hypothesis is what the study is designed to test
What are the three types of hypothesis?
Directional, non-directional and null
What is a directional hypothesis?
(one tailed) predicts the direction in which change is expected to occur. It is precise and uses words such as: faster/slower, bigger/smaller, more/less etc
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
(two tailed) predicts change and does not specify direction. It is non-specific and uses words like: effect, change, difference etc
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts that there will be no difference between the conditions, or no relationship between the co-variables
What is an extraneous variable?
Doesn’t vary systematically with the IV (not an alternative IV) but potentially may have an effect on the DV. If not controlled they can become confounding variables
What is a confounding variable?
A variable that changes the DV, but isn’t the IV and so results may become meaningless
What is the balance between control and realism?
Control is the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher. Mundane realism is how far a study mirrors the real world
What are examples of participant variables?
Age, gender, mood, background, ethnicity, IQ, personality, memory, beliefs, past experiences etc
What are three ways to control participant variables?
Sample (large random sample to gain representative samples), design (repeated measures or matched pairs) and allocation (randomly allocate to conditions if independent groups is being used)
What are examples of situation variables?
Time, order effects, demand characteristics
What are four ways to control situation variables?
Standardise (procedure, instructions etc for each participant), counterbalance (reduce order effects ABBA), deception (hide aim, distractor questions) and single blind study
What are experimenter variables?
Subtle cues or signals from an experimenter that affect the participant performance eg body language, tone of voice (experimenter bias is when this is done on purpose)
What are the two controls for experimenter variables?
Double blind study and inter rater reliability (independent raters rate the same behaviour as researcher and check for agreement)
What is a pilot study?
A small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design with a view to making improvements before the researchers commit to conducting their full scale main study
What does a pilot study test for problems with?
Design of experiment, method, clarity of instructions, measuring instruments, measurements taken. Also allows a time scale of the actual experiment to be estimated
Why are pilot studies important?
These problems can then be rectified (or the decision can be made to scrap the study entirely), without an entire participant sample and a set of stimulus materials being wasted. This can save a lot of time and money
What are the types of experimental method?
Laboratory experiment, field experiment, quasi experiment and natural experiment
What is a lab experiment?
AN experiment carried out in a controlled setting. An experiment conducted in a special environment where variables can be carefully controlled, participants are aware they’re in an experiment
What is an example of a lab experiment?
Bandura et al 1961
What are the strengths of lab experiments?
Control over research variable so can be more certain that any observed change in the DV is due to the IV (makes it replicable), and high in internal validity because we can be more certain that observed change in DV is due to IV
What are the limitations of lab experiments?
Often low in mundane realism as participants know they’re in an experiment so may act differently (demand characteristics) and artificial as it lacks ecological validty
What are field experiments?
Conducted in a more natural/ordinary environment
What is an example of a field experiment?
Bickman 1974 (obedience and uniform)
What are the strengths of field experiments?
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced as people don’t know they’re in an experiment, and there is higher ecological validity as it is more realistic so results are more realistic
What are the limitations of field experiments?
Less control over the variables, and ethical issues because people don’t know they’re in an experiment (deception)
What is a quasi experiment?
The IV is naturally occurring and the DV may be measured in a lab/ The IV has not been made to vary by anyone-it is a difference between people that exists?
What is a strength of quasi experiments?
Allows comparisons between different types of people
What are limitations of quasi experiments?
Can only be used where conditions vary naturally otherwise there would be nothing to test, and participants may be aware of the experiment and so may react differently (demand characteristics) reducing internal validity
What is an example of a quasi experiment?
Sheridan and King 1972 gender differences
What is a natural experiment?
Conducted when it is not possible, for ethical or practical reasons, to deliberately manipulate an IV. Therefore it is said that the IV varies ‘naturally’, The DV may be tested in a laboratory
What is an example of a natural experiment?
Hodges and Tizard’s attachment research (1989)
What are strengths of natural experiments?
Allows research where IV can’t be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons. Enables psychologists to study real problems such as effects of a disaster on health (increased mundane realism)
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
Can’t demonstrate casual relationships as IV is not directly manipulated. Random allocation isn’t possible so may be confounding variables that can’t be controlled, threatening internal validity
What are two types of conditions in an experiment?
Experimental condition where variables are manipulated to see the effect, and control condition where nothing is manipulated to give a base line to compare results with
What are the types of experimental design?
Independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs
What is independent groups?
Participants placed in separate groups and each group only takes part in one condition
What are the advantages of independent groups?
Participants don’t repeat the experiment. Don’t have to take time to match participants up
What are disadvantages of independent groups?
Researcher can’t control the effects of participant variables. Needs more participants than repeated measures design in order to end up with the same amount of data
What is repeated measures?
All participants do all of the conditions
What are the advantages of repeated measures?
Participant variable won’t affect DV. Need less participants. Don’t have to match participants
What are the disadvantages of repeated measures?
Order of the conditions may affect performance (order effects). When they do the second test they may guess the purpose which may affect their behaviour
What are matched pairs?
Two groups of participants but participants are matched on key characteristics
What are the advantages of matched pairs?
Participant variables won’t affect the DV
What are the disadvantages of matched pairs?
Time consuming and difficult to match participants on key characteristics. Not possible to control all participant variables as you can only match on variables known to be relevant
What are the five sampling techniques?
Random, opportunity, volunteer, stratified and systematic
What is random sampling?
Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being picked
What are the advantages of random sampling?
Unbiased, all members of the target population have equal chances of selection
What are disadvantages of random sampling?
Need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those selected, which may take some time
What is opportunity sampling?
Recruit those people who are most convenient or most available eg people walking by in the street
What are advantages of opportunity sampling?
Easiest method as you just use first suitable participants that can be found which takes less time
What are disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
Biased as sample is drawn from a small part of the population
What is volunteer sampling?
Advertise for volunteers
What are advantages of volunteer sampling?
Gives access to a variety of participants and is quick/easy
What are disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
Biased as participants are likely to be more highly motivated or have more time. Also the same sort of people will be the ones to find the advert and volunteer
What is stratified sampling?
A sample of participants is produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from subgroups
What are advantages stratified sampling?
Likely to be more representative than other methods as there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups
What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?
Very time consuming to identify subgroups, then randomly select participants and contact them
What is systematic sampling?
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person. Can be a random sample if the first person is selected by a random method, then select every nth person after that
What are advantages of systematic sampling?
Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system
What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?
Not truly unbiased or random unless you select a number using a random method and start with a random person and then select every nth person
What are measures of central tendency?
Mean, median and mode (they are the middle values of data)
What is mean?
Add up all the numbers then divide by how many there are
What are the strengths of the mean?
When you calculate it, every value is taken into account
What is a limitation of the mean?
An anomalous result may affect the mean
What is the median?
Put the numbers in order then find the middle number
What is a strength of the median?
Not affected by anomalous results
What is a limitation of the median?
Doesn’t take into account every piece of data, only one
What is the mode?
The number which occurs the most often
What is a strength of the mode?
Not affected by anomalous results
What is a limitation of the mode?
Doesn’t take into account all pieces of data, only one or a few
What are measures of dispersion?
The range and standard deviation (How spread out data is)
What is the range?
The arithmetic distance between the top and bottom values in a set of data
What is standard deviation?
An indicator of how the data is spread out around the mean
What is a strength of the range?
Quicker and easier to work out
What is a limitation of the range?
DOesn’t take into account all the data
What is a strength of standard deviation?
Takes all data into account
What is a limitation of standard deviation?
Affected by anomalous results and takes longer to work out
How can data be presented?
In bar graphs, histograms, line graphs, frequency distribution and normal distribution
When are bar graphs used?
When data falls into categories; the X axis is labelled with the categories; the Y axis with frequencies. The height of bars represents the number of times a category was recorded. Columns are equal widths and do not touch each other. They can’t convert into line graphs and can’t show or compare distributions
When are histograms used?
When results can be put in a continuous order; the X axis shows all of the possible scores in order, the Y axis shows how many participants got this score. Column heights show frequencies. All columns are equal width and no spaces between columns. Data is continuous and can convert to line graphs
What are line graphs?
Work in exact same way as histograms except lines are used to show where the top of each column would reach. Useful for comparing two distributions as they can be drawn on the same graph
What is a frequency distribution?
Summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores. Frequency can be defined as how often something happens. Distribution refers to the pattern of these frequencies. Frequency distribution looks at how frequently certain things happen within a sample of values
What is a skewed distribution?
Some populations scores are not distributed equally around the mean
What is a normal distribution?
34.13% of people will lie on one standard deviation below the mean and 34.13% will lie above the mean
What does the normal distribution bell curve look like?
0.13%, 2.15%, 13.59%, 34.13%, 34.13%, 13.59%, 2.15%, 0.13%
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?
Quantitative is measurable and numerical whereas qualitative is descriptions and observations aren’t measurable
What are evaluation points for quantitative and qualitative data?
Quantitative can be easily analysed and conclusions can be drawn but it oversimplifies reality eg in questionnaires you have to pick between the options that are present. Qualitative is not easily analysed and conclusions can’t be drawn but it allows unexpected insight from the detailed information answers aren’t restricted
What are two other types of data?
Primary (Collected and used by self) and secondary data (collected by someone else and used by self)
What are self report techniques?
Non-experimental method that asks questions about beliefs and experiences that allows participants to report on their own thoughts/feelings. Eg questionnaires and interviews
What are questionnaires?
Written questions designed to collect information on a specific topic. Always structured and predetermined
What are interviews?
Asks about beliefs, experiences, thoughts, feelings. Can be face to face or written. Unstructured interviews have no predetermined questions and just a basic aim, they are flexible and questions develop in response to answers. Structured interviews are a set of predetermined questions, they are essentially a questionnaire but face to face
How can interviews be recorded?
Written (time consuming and distracting) or video/audio recorded
What interviewer effects could affect interviews?
Non verbal eg smiling and nodding when favourable responses are given etc
What extra skills are needed for unstructured interviews?
Listening (don’t interrupt), follow up questions need to be appropriate and specific, don’t ask why too often and avoid participant need to repeat themselves (avoid same questions)
What is the difference between an open and closed question?
Open questions allow participants to respond with own answer and can expand to give detail but these are difficult for those with low literacy levels and hard to compare/summarise. Closed questions allow response from a predetermined set of answers, these are easier for those with lower literacy levels and easier to compare/summarise but participants true feelings may not be an option and so validity can be reduced
What makes a good set of questions?
Easy analysis, avoid bias, filler questions, representative, sequence, clarity and pilot study
Where are the strengths of questionnaires?
Replicability and reliability, and less chance of social desirability than interviews
What are the weaknesses of questionnaires?
Misinterpretation of questions (more likely to occur than with interviews)
What are the strengths of structured interviews?
Replicability/reliability, less likely to misinterpret questions than with questionnaires
What are the weaknesses of structured interviews?
Less detail/insight, interviews bias
What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?
Detail and insight
What are the weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
Interviewer bias, skill and training, comparability and reliability
Why do we carry out statistical tests instead of just accepting that one condition/group has a bigger score?
To make sure they haven’t occurred by chance, and to make sure the difference between the groups is significant
When is a sign test used?
Looking for a difference, with repeated measures or matched pairs
When using a sign test how do you know if the results are significant?
Significant if the calculated value is equal to or less than the critical (table) value
What does the scientific method involve?
Developing knowledge through research and sharing this knowledge with others
Why is peer review important?
Work is scrutinised so any fraudulent or flawed research is ignored and psychology can remain a credible subject
What is peer review?
It is the assessment of scientific work prior to publishing, it is conducted by another ‘expert’ in the same field. The results of peer review decide if research is published in a journal or not and it aims to make sure any published research is high quality
What are correlational studies?
A method used to analyse the association between two variables, looks for a relationship, does not look for a difference, does not establish cause and effect, represented graphically on a scatter gram
What are the types of correlation?
Strong positive/negative, no correlation, weak positive/weakness, moderate positive/negative
What are the types of observation?
Naturalistic, controlled, overt, covert, non-participant and participant
What is naturalistic observation?
The researcher does not get involved in any way, just watches in own environment
What is controlled observation?
Behaviour is observed under conditions where the variables have been organised by the researcher
What is overt observation?
Participants know they are being observed
What is covert observation?
Observing people without their knowledge
What is non-participant observation?
The observer is separate from those being studied
What is participant observation?
The observations are made by the researcher who takes part in the activity
What is a strength of naturalistic observation?
Get to see natural realistic behaviour
What is a weakness of naturalistic observation?
No control so may not find out what you want to
What is a strength of controlled observation?
Can control to find out what you want
What is a weakness of controlled observation?
Isn’t a realistic natural view of their behaviour
What is a strength of covert observation?
Can see how people would naturally act
What is a weakness of covert observation?
Deceived-no informed consent
What is a strength of overt observation?
Consent can be given
What is a weakness of overt observation?
People may change their behaviour (social desirability/demand characteristics)
What is a strength of participant observation?
Insight-allows researcher to gain empathy through personal experience
What is a weakness of participant observation?
Results can become bias if become too involved. Also issues with informed consent
What is a strength of non-participant observation?
Researcher can be open minded as they are an outsider looking in
What is a weakness of non-participant observation?
Hawthorne effect-people act differently as they know they are being observed
What is an unstructured observation?
No system, just observing and noting anything that stands out-usually when there is a lack of research in this area
What is a structured observation?
Rigorous, objective and more reliable, with a set of behavioural categories and detailed structure of when to record (use of behavioural categories and sampling procedure-event sampling/time sampling)
What is event sampling?
How many times does the event happen in a given time period
What is time sampling?
What behaviour is occurring at each regular time slot eg every minute
What are five other research methods?
Meta analysis, multi-method, longitudinal, cross-sectional and cross cultural
What is metal analysis?
Use databases of published research to search for studies that address a specific aim. Then assesses trends in the data to find an effect size across the studies using statistics
What is multi-method?
Some studies don’t fit one method and may use questionnaires and observations and interviews etc
What are longitudinal studies?
Studies the same group of people or person over a long period of time to study long term effects of events/treatment
What are cross sectional studies?
Compares groups at the same point in time eg 20 year olds and 50 year olds in 2015
What are cross cultural studies?
Comparing samples from different cultures in a natural experiment where the IV occurs naturally due to where they are from
What is a strength of meta-analysis?
Increases validity and can reach an overall conclusion
What is a weakness of meta-analysis?
Produces contradictory results sometimes
What are ethical issues?
Conflicts between ethical guidelines and what the researcher wants or needs to do in their research
What are the six key ethical issues (must know them from the researcher and participants point of view)?
Deception, right to withdraw, informed consent, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality
Why is deception an ethical issue?
Deliberately giving false information is unacceptable (Milgram/Craik and Lockhart)
Why is right to withdraw an ethical issue?
Participants should not lose any payment for leaving and should not feel obliged to continue. If they feel any kind of distress they should leave
Why is informed consent an ethical issue?
Participants need to know the true aim of the study so that they can decide whether to take part, they are aware of any potential benefits or risks (Middlemist/Pillavin)
Why is protection from harm an ethical issue?
The participants should face no more harm (physical or psychological) than they would in day to day life (Zimbardo/Ainsworth)
Why is privacy an ethical issue?
Only behaviour that would be normal for a public place should be studied
Why is confidentiality an ethical issue?
It is a legal right, participants should remain anonymous
What gives guidelines on how to deal with ethical issues?
The British Psychological Society-they also say what is an isn’t acceptable (code of conduct)
What four key principles do the BPS focus on?
Respect for the dignity of people, competence (high standard of work from the researcher), responsibility to clients and the public, and integrity (honesty in reporting)
What is a cost-benefit analysis?
Weigh up the costs and benefits of carrying out the research to see which is larger, if the costs are larger it should not go ahead
What can costs include?
Loss of time and distress for the participants, stereotypes and biases in treatment of particular cultures
What can benefits include?
Payment and satisfaction of helping for participants, and improving the lives of many
What are ethics committees?
They are also used to assess proposals from researchers and recommend how to deal with ethical issues and pass judgement on whether or not it should go ahead
What happens if a researcher does engage in unethical research?
The BPS reviews the research and if they deem it necessary, will punish them by banning them from any future research
What is the evaluation of the guideline and punishment approach?
Rules and sanctions approach is general. Canada takes a different approach-series of hypothetical dilemmas are discussed-encourages debate, whereas BPS and APA close off discussions about what is wrong and right
What is the evaluation for the cost benefit analysis approach?
Difficult to predict costs and benefits eg Milgram predicted 2% would shock to 450 volts but 65% actually did
How can informed consent issues be dealt with?
Receive informed consent, alternatively gain presumptive consent-however this may invalidate the purpose of the study
How can deception issues be dealt with?
Need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee and participants should be debriefed at the end of the study-however cost benefit analysis has flaws and debriefing can cause further embarassment
How can right to withdraw issues be dealt with?
Participants should be told at the start that they have the right to withdraw-participants sometimes feel like withdrawing will ruin the study
How can protection from harm issues be dealt with?
Avoid risks greater than experienced in everyday life, and stop the study if harm is suspected-however harm may not be apparent at the time of the study
How can confidentiality issues be dealt with?
Researchers should not record names of participants, instead use false names or numbers, however sometimes due to location and other information, confidentiality is not possible as it is possible to work out who the participants are
How can privacy issues be dealt with?
Don’t study anyone without informed consent unless it is in a public place and public behaviour-however there is no universal agreement about what constitutes a public place
What is the scientific method?
Objective, systematic and replicable observation. Building, refining or falsifying. Development of a scientific theory. Testing. Repeat
What is the scientific process?
It is important to understand the scientific method is not the same as ‘doing an experiment’. It may involve observation, or self report, not just experiment. But more importantly, science is a process which enables humankind to get closer and closer to understanding how the world, and the people in it, function. Many elements of this process have evolved over the centuries to ensure that we uncover facts tat can be relied on to build bridges, treat disease, raise psychologically healthy children and so on. One part of this process is peer review
What is peer review?
The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research and academic reports. It is the assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field. The intention of peer reviewing is to ensure that any research conducted and published is of high quality
How does a peer review work?
Usually there are a number of reviewers for each application/articles/assessment. Their task is to report on the quality of the research and then their views are considered by a peer review panel
What are the main purposes of peer review?
The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology suggests the peer review serves three main purposes. Allocation of research funding, publication of research in academic journals and books, and assessing the research rating of university departments
What is allocation of research funding (purpose of peer review)?
Research is paid for by various government and charitable bodies. The overall budget for science research in the year 2015-16 was set at £5.8 billion. The organisations spending this money obviously have a duty to spend it responsibly. Therefore, public bodies such as the Medical Research Council require reviews to enable them to decide which research is likely to be worthwhile
What is publication of research in academic journals and books (purpose of peer review)?
Scientific or academic journals provide scientists with the opportunity to share the results of their research. The peer review process has only been used in such journals ever since the middle of the 20th century as a means of preventing incorrect or faulty data entering the public domain. Prior to the idea of peer review, research was simply published and it was assumed that the burden of proof lay with opponents of any new ideas
What is assessing the research rating of university departments (purpose of peer review)?
All university science departments are expected to conduct research and this is assessed in terms of quality (Research Excellence Framework, REF). Future funding for the department depends on receiving good ratings from the REF peer review
How is peer review influenced by the internet?
Sheer volume and pace of information available on internet means new solutions are needed in order to maintain quality of information. Scientific information available in numerous online blogs, online journals and Wikipedia. To a large extent such sources of information are policed by ‘wisdom of crowds’ approach
What is the ‘wisdom of crowds’ approach used to police information on the internet?
Readers decide whether it is valid or not, and post comments and/or edit entries accordingly. Several online journals (such as ArXiv and Philica) ask readers to rate articles. On Philica, papers are ranked on basis of peer reviews which can be read by anyone
How is peer review different on the internet?
On the internet, ‘peer’ is coming to mean ‘everyone’-a more egalitarian system but possibly at a cost of quality
Why is peer review essential?
Without it we don’t know what is mere opinion and speculation as distinct from rigorously researched data. We need to have a means of establishing the validity of scientific research
What did Richard Smith, previous editor of the British Medical Journal comment on peer review?
‘Peer review is slow, expensive, profligate of academic time, highly subjective, prone to bias, easily abused, poor at detecting gross defects and almost useless at detecting fraud’
What are the evaluation points for the scientific process and peer review?
Finding an expert, anonymity, publication bias, preserving the status quo, and cannot deal with already published research
How does ‘finding an expert’ evaluate the scientific process and peer review?
It isn’t always possible to find an appropriate expert to review a research proposal or report. This means that poor research may be passed because the reviewer didn’t really understand it
How does ‘anonymity’ evaluate the scientific process and peer review?
Anonymity is usually practiced so reviewers can be honest/objective. However, it may have opposite effect if reviewers use the veil of anonymity to settle old scores or bury rival research. Research conducted in social world where people compete for research grants and jobs, and make friends and enemies. Social relationship inevitably affect objectivity. Some journals now favour open reviewing (where both author and reviewer know each other’s identity)
How does ‘publication bias’ evaluate the scientific process and peer review?
Journals tent to prefer to publish positive results, possibly as editors want research that has important implications to increase standing of their journal. This results in a bias in published research that then leads to misperception of true facts. Furthermore, it appears journals also avoid publishing straight replications of a study, fundamental part of research validation. Ritchie et al submitted replication of study on paranormal phenomena and found it was not even considered for peer review. Suggest journals are as bad as newspapers for seeking eye-catching stories
How does ‘preserving the status quo’ evaluate the scientific process and peer review?
Peer review results in preference for research that goes with existing theory rather than dissenting or unconventional work. Horton, former editor of medical journal, ‘The Lancet’, made the following comment: ‘The mistake, of course, is to have thought peer review was any more than a crude means of discovering acceptability-not validity-of a new finding’
How does ‘cannot deal with already published research’ evaluate the scientific process and peer review?
Ince research study has been published, results remain in public view even if they subsequently shown to be fraudulent or of poor research practices, therefore peer review doesn’t ensure all data we are exposed to is valid. Eg Brooks points to peer-reviewed research that was subsequently debunked but nevertheless continued to be used in debate in parliament. Fact that members of parliament have such little critical understanding of process of science emphasises need for increased vigilance by scientists of quality of their work
What is economic psychology?
The discipline of Economic Psychology is a blend of economics and psychology-seeking a better understanding of people’s behaviour in their economic lives. The field is also referred to as ‘behavioural economics’ where researchers investigate effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on economic decisions. The field is primarily concerned with the rationality (or irrationality) of decisions relating to economics
What is irrational thinking (in economic psychology)?
Examples of irrational thinking can be seen in depression, but it isn’t just depressed people who think irrationally-we all do. Kahneman has led the field of research into everyday irrational thinking and uncovered, and explained, many fascinating aspects of this behaviour
What is availability heuristic (in economic psychology)?
Heuristic means rule. People typically overestimate the likelihood of dying in a plane accident-the reason for such irrational thinking is because we often read about such accidents and therefore they are more available when making a probability judgement about the likelihood of being in such an accident. The availability heuristic is the rule that the likelihood of selecting something is related to its ‘availability’
What is the framing effect (in economic psychology)?
Another example of irrational thinking is that people’s decisions differ depending on whether a choice is presented as a gain or loss. Tversky and Kahneman asked participants to choose between two treatments that were going to be used with 600 people suffering from a deadly disease. Two groups of participants were given the same facts about the success and failure rates of the treatment but the facts were ‘framed’ differently
What was one group told in Tversky and Kahneman’s study?
One group of participants were told Treatment A would result in 400 deaths, whereas treatment B would have a 33% chance that no one would die, and a 66% chance that all 600 would die
What was the second group told in Tversky and Kahneman’s study?
The second group of participants were told that Treatment A would save 200 lives, whereas treatment B had a 33% chance of saving everyone and a 66% of saving no one
What do both groups in Tversky and Kahneman’s study show?
The first group is positive framing, and when participants were given this description 72% selected Treatment A. When participants were given the same scenario but in a negative frame only 22% selected Treatment A
What is real-world influences (in economic psychology)?
Understanding the systematic biases caused by such irrational thinking is important in improving our personal lives as well as the fabric of our society. Economist Layard says Kahneman’s work on understanding irrational thinking has transformed business. His ideas have been applied to almost any endeavour you can think of-decision-making in injuries, treatment of mental health problems, financial advice, government programmes, and so on
How can economic psychology apply to social change?
Campaign to reduce drink driving where attitudes and behaviours were changed by making people aware of social norms. Similar ideas have been used to reduce social stereotypes and smoking. Such practices have the potential to bring about positive changes that will impact on the economy; however, this approach is limited to tasks where behaviour is moderated by social criteria
How can economic psychology apply to improving memory?
Cognitive interview is a technique based on psychological research that has improved the amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses-the whole topic of eyewitness memory research is focused on improving crime detection. The implication for the economy is to be able to reduce expenses on wrongful arrests and to ensure that criminals are caught
How can economic psychology apply to attachment?
Bowlby’s theory and related research on attachment opened the eyes of the world to the importance of emotional care in early child development. Unicef indicate the continuing influence this has on developmental policies in ensuring the healthy development of children to becoming productive members of society and this improving world economy. Before Bowlby’s research people believed that physical care was all that was necessary
How can economic psychology apply to mental health?
The McCrone report estimated direct costs of mental health in England at around £22.5 billion a year-including spending in health and social care and variety of other agencies, but not indirect costs of impact on criminal justice system and in lost employment. Particular concern is projected rise in dementia and growing population of older people. Psychologists are increasingly turning their attention to research on dementia. The report commented on use of drugs vs psychotherapies-evidence based research on effective drug therapies is important in reducing costs and helping people retune to work
How can economic psychology apply to biopsychology?
Neuroscience offers possibility of revolutionising out understanding of human brain. An American government report suggested this may have practical economic benefits in the area of ‘smart’ machines, i.e. machines that will think like humans. This does not mean building human-like robots but just money-saving intelligent machines to deal with, for example, questions on the telephone or recognising faces at airports
What is probability (p)? (Year2)
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur. A statistical test gives the probability that a particular set of data did not occur by chance
What is the alternative hypothesis?(Year2)
A testable statement about the relationship (difference/association etc) between two or more variables
What is a type 1 error?(Year2)
Occurs when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is true. It is a false positive
What is a type 2 error?(Year2)
Occurs when a researcher accepts a null hypothesis that was not true. It is a false negative
In research, how do we get more precise than probability?(Year2)
In order to work out whether a difference is or is not significant, we use statistical tests. These permit us to work out how probable it is that a pattern in research data could have arisen by chance or how probable it is that the effect occurred because there is a real difference/correlation in the populations from which the samples were drawn
What do we mean by ‘chance’, in probability?(Year2)
Chance refers to something with no cause, it just happens. We decide on a probability that we will ‘risk’. You can’t be 100% certain that an observed effect was not due to chance, but you can state how certain you are. You can be fairly confident you are right but nevertheless have a little bit of doubt
What are probability levels?(Year2)
In general, psychologists use a level of probability of 95%. This expresses the degree of uncertainty. It means there is a 5% chance of results occurring if the null hypothesis is true. In other words, a 5% probability that the results would occur even if there was no real difference/correlation between the populations from which the samples were drawn. This probability of 5% is recorded as p=0.05 (p means probability). The probability is 5% or less which is written as p≤0.05. If researchers want to be more certain they use a probability of 1% or less, which is p≤0.01. The chosen value of ‘p’ is the significance level
What are type 1 and type 2 errors in probability?(Year2)
Psychologists generally use the 5% probability level because this is a good compromise between being too strict or too lenient about accepting the null hypothesis0or more formally, a good compromise between a type 1 and a type 2 error
What is a statistical test?(Year2)
Procedures for drawing logical conclusions (influences) about the population from which samples are drawn
What are the statistical tests divided into?(Year2)
Parametric and non-parametric. Parametric tests are preferred because they are more powerful, however they can only be used if certain criteria are met
What are the criterion for a parametric test?(Year2)
The level of measurement is interval or better. The data are drawn from a population that has a normal distribution. The variances of the two samples are not significantly different
What is the ‘level of measurement is interval or better’ criterion for parametric tests?(Year2)
Levels of measurement refers to the different ways of measuring items or psychological variables; the lower levels are less precise
How do you decide if the level of measurement is interval or better for parametric tests?(Year2)
Are the data categories (nominal) or ordered in some way (ordinal)=non parametric statistics. Are the intervals between the data truly equal interval=parametric statistics
What is the ‘data are drawn from a population that has a normal distribution’ criterion for parametric tests?(Year2)
It is not the sample that must be normally distributed but the population. A normal distribution is when most items cluster around the mean with an equal number of items above and below the mean
How do you decide if the data has been drawn from a population that has a normal distribution?(Year2)
We expect many physical and psychological characteristics to be normally distributed, such as height, shoe sizes, IQ, and friendliness. Therefore you can justify the use of a parametric test by saying that the characteristic measured is assumed to be normal. You could also check the distribution of scores to see if they are skewed or not
What is the ‘variances of the two samples are not significantly different’ criterion for parametric tests?(Year2)
The variance is a measure of how spread out a set of data is around the mean. It is the square of the standard deviation
How do you decide if the variances of the two samples are not significantly different? (Year2)
In the case of repeated measures (related samples) any difference in the variances should not distort the result. For independent groups you can check the variances. The variance of one sample should not be more than four times the variance of the other
What are the different statistical tests?(Year2)
More flashcards on the different statistical tests and the decision tree are in the research method year 2 flashcard set
What are calculated and critical values? (Year2)
Each statistical test involves taking data collected in a study and doing some arithmetical calculations which produce a single number called the test statistic. Eg in the case of Spearman’s correlation test, that test statistic is called rho, whereas for the Mann-Whitney test it is U. The rho or U value calculated for any test is the calculated value. To decide if the calculated value is significant, the figure is compared to another number found in the statistical table. The value in the statistical table is called a critical value
What is a test statistic?(Year2)
The name given to the value calculated using a statistical test. For each test this value has a specific name such as S for the sign test
What is a calculated value?(Year2)
The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set
What is a critical value?(Year2)
In a statistical test the value of the test statistic that must be reached to show significance
How do you use a statistical table?(Year2)
There are different statistical tables for each different statistical test. To find the appropriate critical value in the table, you need to know the significance level (usually p≤0.05). Need to know the kind of hypothesis (one or two tailed). Also need to know value of N (the number of participants in the study. If studies use an independent groups design there are two N values called NA and NB) and in some tests, such as t-tests and chi-squared, you calculate degrees of freedom
What is degrees of freedom?(Year2)
The number of values that are free to vary given that the overall total values are known
What is the importance of R in tables of critical values?(Year2)
Some tests are significant when calculated value is equal to or greater than critical value, for others it’s the reverse. One way to remember is to see if there is an R in the test name. If there is an R then the calculated value should be greater than the critical value (eg Spearman’s, Pearson’s chi-squared and unrelated t test). If there is no R (eg Sign test, Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon) then the calculated value should be less than the critical value
What is a correlation?
A systematic association between two continuous variables
What are the types of correlation?
Co variables may not be linked at all (zero correlation), they may both increase together (positive correlation), or as one co variable increases the other decreases (negative correlation)
What is a correlational hypothesis?
When conducting study using correlational analysis we need to produce correlational hypothesis. This states expected association between co-variables. Correlational hypotheses can be positive correlation and directional hypothesis, negative correlation and directional hypothesis, zero correlation and non directional (null) etc
How are correlations illustrated?
Using a scattergram. For each individual we obtain two scores which are used to plot one dot for that individual-the co-variables determine the x and y position of the dot. The scatter of the dots indicate the degree of correlation between co-variables
If you plot a scattergram, what is an accurate way of knowing whether the pattern of dots represents a meaningful, systematic association?
Researchers use a statistical test to calculate the correlation coefficient, a measure of the extent of correlation that exists between the co-variables
What are correlation coefficients?
A number, it has a maximum value of 1 (+1 is perfect positive correlation and -1 is perfect negative correlation). The coefficient tells us how closely the co-variables are related
How does a correlation coefficient tell us if the scattergram shows a significant association?
Tables of significance are used, which tell us how big the coefficient needs to be in order for the correlation to count as significant
What are the evaluation points for correlations?
Difference between correlations and experiments, limitations and strengths
How is ‘difference between correlations and experiments’ an evaluation point for correlations?
Unique feature of experiment is the investigator deliberately changes independent variable to observe effect on dependent variable. Without this deliberate change no causal conclusions can be drawn. In correlation the variables are simply measured; no deliberate change is made. Therefore no conclusion can be made about one co-variable causing another
How is ‘limitations’ an evaluation point for correlations?
Problem of jumping to conclusions-such misinterpretation of correlations mean people design programmes for improvement based on false premises. In such cases, possible intervening variables have been ignored, which can explain why the co-variables are linked. A further limitation is that, as with experiments, a correlation may lack internal/external validity eg method may lack validity or sample may lack generalisability
How is ‘strengths’ an evaluation point for correlations?
Used to investigate trends in data. If correlation is significant then further investigation is justified. If correlation is not significant then a causal relationship can probably be ruled out. As with experiments, procedures in correlation can usually be repeated again meaning findings can be confirmed and can have reliability
What are the other research methods?
Meta-analysis, case studies and content analysis
What is a systematic review?
Review studies where a systematic assessment of the studies is conducted, eg review by Cowan of studies of capacity of short term memory, or deMaat et al’s review of psychotherapy studies. A review of research involves identifying an aim, then searching for studies with a similar aim/hypotheses by searching databases of research from academic journals. a search criteria decision is made to decide what studies are or aren’t included
What is a meta anlaysis?
A method of analysing data in some reviews. It produces an effect size as the DV in order to assess overall trends. Eg a meta analysis of 53 studies into effectiveness of cognitive interview, compared to standard techniques showed effect size of 34% (cognitive interview improved recall by 34%
What is the evaluation for meta-analysis?
Various studies used increases validity and is based on a wider sample of participants. They allow an overall conclusion and statistics can be used to represent findings. However different studies often means different research designs and so they may not be truly comparable which affects validity
What is a case study?
Detailed study of single individual/institution/event using a range of sources. Many research techniques can be used. They are normally longitudinal, eg HM was tested over a period of 50 years
What is the evaluation for case studies?
Gives rich in-depth data that other methods may overlook. Useful way to investigate things that are rare and unethical to replicate in a lab. Hard to generalise from and unreliable. They also cannot study changes after something has occurred as you cannot go back in time to see the original situation and cannot predict someone is going to eg get into an accident and receive brain damage
What is a content analysis?
Form of indirect observation. Process is similar to any observational study. The researcher has to make decisions about: sampling method and behavioural categories
What is the evaluation for content analyses?
High ecological validity-based on observations of what people actually do. Reliable as sources can be retained and accessed by others. However can suffer from observer bias (differences in how meanings of behavioural categories are interpreted) which reduces objectivity and validity of findings
What other research techniques can be used?
Longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies (one group compared to another) and cross-cultural studies. Also a multi method approach can be taken, and sometimes a method does not fit into any category-it is just a method
What are the basic mathematical concepts?
Fractions, percentages, ratios (part to part ratio and part to whole ratio which can be easily changed to a fraction), significant figures and order of magnitude and standard form
What is order of magnitude?
A means of expressing a number by focusing on the overall size, by expressing the number in terms of powers of 10
What is standard form?
A means of expressing very large or very small numbers
What does ‘=’ mean?
Equal
What does ‘~’ mean?
Approxamately equal
What does ‘
Les than and much less than
What does ‘>’ and ‘»’ mean?
More than and much more than
What does ‘≤’ mean?
Less than or equal to
What does ‘≥’ mean?
Greater than or equal to
What does ‘∝’ mean?
Proportional to
