Psychology-Attachment

Question 1

What is reciprocity?

Answer 1

Responding to the action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner. The responses are not necessarily similar as in interactional synchrony

Question 2

What research looks at reciprocity?

Answer 2

Research in the 1970s eg Jaffe et al demonstrated that infants coordinated their actions with caregivers in a kind of conversation. From birth babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns like in a conversation (an example of reciprocity)

Question 3

What did Brazelton suggest about reciprocity?

Answer 3

Suggested that reciprocity is an important precursor to later communications. The regularity of an infant’s signals allows a caregiver to anticipate the infant’s behaviour and respond appropriately. This sensitivity to infant behaviour lays the foundations for later attachment between caregiver and infant

Question 4

What is interactional synchrony?

Answer 4

When two people interact they tend to mirror what the other is doing in terms of their facial and body movements. This includes imitating emotions as well as behaviours. This is described as a synchrony-when two (or more) things move in the same pattern

Question 5

What was the first systematic study of international synchrony?

Answer 5

Meltzoff and Moore found that infants as young as two to three weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures

Question 6

How was Meltzoff and Moore’s study into interactional synchrony conducted?

Answer 6

They used an adult model who displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements where fingers moved in a sequence. A dummy was placed in the infant’s mouth during the initial display to prevent response. Following the display the dummy was removed and the child’s expression was filmed on a video

Question 7

What did Meltzoff and Moore find?

Answer 7

There was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model

Question 8

What did Meltzoff and Moore demonstrate in a later study?

Answer 8

They demonstrated the same synchrony with infants only three days old. The fact that infants as young as this were displaying the behaviour would appear to rule out the possibility that the imitation behaviours are learned, i.e. the behavioural response must be innate

Question 9

What is the real, or pseudo imitation argument?

Answer 9

Meltzoff and Moore proposed that this imitation is intentional, but by contrast, Piaget believed that true imitation only developed towards the end of the first year

Question 10

How does Piaget explain imitation behaviours in infants?

Answer 10

Imitation before the end of the first year was a kind of ‘response training’-what the infant is doing is repeating a behaviour that was rewarded (i.e. the result of operant conditioning). Eg an infant may happen to stick its tongue out after seeing a caregiver do this. The consequence is the caregiver smiling which is rewarding and encourages the infant to repeat the behaviour net time. Pseudo-imitation; the infant had not consciously translated what they see into a matching movement

Question 11

What support is there for Meltzoff and Moore’s view of imitation?

Answer 11

A study by Murray and Trevarthen. In their study two-month old infants first interacted via a video monitor with their mother in real time, then the monitor played a tape of the mother so the image on the screen was not responding to the infant’s facial and bodily gestures. The result was acute distress. The infants tried to attract mothers interest but gained no response and turned away, showing the infant is actively trying to gain a response rather than displaying a response that has been rewarded. This shows the infant is an active and intentional part in mother-infant interaction-further supporting the notion that such behaviours are innate rather than learned

Question 12

What are the evaluation points for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 12

Problems with testing infant behaviour, failure to replicate, is the behaviour intentional?, individual differences, and the value of the research

Question 13

How is ‘problems with testing infant behaviour’ an evaluation point for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 13

There is reason to have some doubt about the findings of research because of the difficulties in reliably infant behaviours. Infant’s mouths are in fairly constant motion and the expressions that are tested occur frequently (yawning/smiling etc). This makes it difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours. To overcome these problems Meltzoff and Moore measured infant responses by filming infants and then asking an observer to judge the infants’ behaviour from the behaviour. The person judging had no idea what behaviour was being imitated, increasing the internal validity of the data

Question 14

How is ‘failure to replicate’ an evaluation point for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 14

Other studies have failed to replicate the findings of studies. For example, a study by Koepke et al failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore findings; Meltzoff and Moore counter agued that the research by Koepke et al failed because its was less carefully controlled. Marian et al replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen and found that infants couldn’t distinguish live from videotaped interactions with their mothers. This suggests that the infants are actually not responding to the adult. However, Marian et al acknowledge that the problem may lie with the procedure rather than the ability of infants to imitate their caregiver

Question 15

How is ‘is the behaviour intentional?’ an evaluation point for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 15

Another method used to test the intentionality of infant behaviour is to observe how they respond to inanimate objects. Abravanel and DeYong observed infant behaviour when ‘interacting’ with two objects, one simulating tongue movements and the other mouth opening/closing. They found that infants of median age 5 and 12 weeks made little response to the objects. They concluded that this shows that infants do not just imitate anything they see-it is a specific social response to other humans

Question 16

How is ‘individual differences’ an evaluation point for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 16

An important feature of interactional synchrony is that there is some variation between infants. Isabella et al found that more strongly attached infant-caregiver pairs showed greater interactional synchrony. Heimann showed that infants who demonstrate a lot of imitation from birth onwards have been found to have a better quality of relationship at three months. However, it isn’t clear whether the imitation is a cause or an effect of this early synchrony

Question 17

How is ‘the value of the research’ an evaluation point for caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 17

The importance of this imitative behaviour is that it forms the basis for social development. Meltzoff has developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony. He proposes that first there is connection between what the infant sees and their imitation of this. Second, infants associate their own acts and their own underlying mental states. Third, infants project their own internal experiences onto others performing similar acts. As a result infants begin to acquire an understanding of what other people are thinking and feeling. Such understanding relates to a Theory of Mind-understanding the mental states of other people. This is fundamental for conducting social relationships. A strength of the research is it explains how children begin to understand what others think.feel and so are able to conduct relationships

Question 18

What is the main study into the development of attachment?

Answer 18

Schaffer and Emerson conducted a study on attachment, and then used the findings from the study to construct a 4 stage description of how attachment develops

Question 19

What are the four stages of attachment?

Answer 19

Stage 1 is indiscriminate attachments, stage 2 is the beginnings of attachment, stage 3 is discriminate attachment, and stage 4 is multiple attachments

Question 20

What age is the infant during the first stage of attachment?

Answer 20

From birth until about two months

Question 21

What is the indiscriminate attachments stage?

Answer 21

Infants produce a similar response to all objects, whether they are animate or inanimate. Towards the end of this period, infants begin to show greater preference for social stimuli, such as a smiling face, and to be more content when they are with people. During this time, reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in establishing the infants relationships with others

Question 22

What age is the infant during the second stage of attachment?

Answer 22

Around the age of four months

Question 23

What is the beginnings of attachment stage?

Answer 23

Infants become more social. They prefer human company to inanimate objects and can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people. However, they are still relatively easily comforted by anyone, and do not yet show stranger anxiety. The most distinctive feature of this phase s their general sociability

Question 24

What age is the infant during the third stage of attachment?

Answer 24

About seven months old

Question 25

What is the discriminate attachment stage?

Answer 25

Infants begin to show separation anxiety, and show joy at reunion when their primary attachment figure (special attachment) returns. Around the same time the infant begins to display stranger anxiety

Question 26

What did Schaffer and Emerson find about primary attachment figures?

Answer 26

They were not always formed with the person who spent most time with the child. They observed that intensly attached infants had mothers who responded quickly and sensitively to their ‘signals’ and who offered their child the most interaction. Infants who were poorly attached had mothers who failed to interact. Concluded that the quality of the relationship mattered most in formation of attachment, rather than quantity

Question 27

Who is usually the primary attachment figure?

Answer 27

In 65% of children the first specific attachment was to the mother, and in a further 30% the mother was the first joint object of attachment. Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (3%) but 27% of them were the joint first object

Question 28

When is the fourth stage of attachment?

Answer 28

The fourth stage is very soon after the main attachment is formed

Question 29

What is the multiple attachments stage?

Answer 29

The infant develops a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on how many consistent relationships they have. Specifically Schaffer and Emerson found that, within one month of primary attachment, 29% had multiple attachments to someone else (other parent, grandparents, siblings, relatives, friends etc). These are secondary attachments. Infants also display separation anxiety in these relationships. Within six months this had risen to 78% (by the age of one year, the majority of infants had multiple attachments, 1/3 had five or more secondary attachments)

Question 30

What did Schaffer and Emerson find about the role of the father as a primary attachment figure?

Answer 30

This is less likely to be the case, maybe because they spend less time with their infants (Lamb). Men may not be psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment as they lack the emotional sensitivity that women offer, which may be due to biological or social factors that make women more caring. Heermann et al show evidence that men are less sensitive to infant cues than mothers, however Frodi et al showed videotapes of infants crying and found no differences in the physiological responses of men and women

Question 31

What did Schaffer and Emerson find about the role of the father as a secondary attachment figure?

Answer 31

Research has consistently highlighted the fact that fathers are more playful, physically active and generally better at providing challenging situations for their children. A father is an exiting playmate whereas mothers are more conventional and tend to read stories to their children (Geiger) It may be that a lack of sensitivity from fathers can be seen as positive because it fosters problem-solving by making greater communicative and cognitive demands on children (White and Woollett)

Question 32

What are the evaluation points for the development of attachment?

Answer 32

Unreliable data, biased sample, are multiple attachments equivalent, cultural variations, and stage theories

Question 33

How is ‘biased sample’ an evaluation point for the development of attachment?

Answer 33

There were many biases, the sample was from a working class population so may not apply to other social groups. Also it was from the 1960s and parental care of children/division of labour has significantly changed. Cohen et al found the number of dads who choose to stay home and care for family has quadrupled over the past 25 years

Question 34

How is ‘are multiple attachments equivalent?’ an evaluation point for the development of attachment?

Answer 34

Bowlby’s view was that an infant forms one special emotional relationship. Subsidiary to this are many other secondary attachments which are important as an emotional safety net, and for other needs. Eg fathers may offer a special kind of care and relationships with siblings are important in learning how to negotiate with peers. However Rutter argues all attachment figures are equivalent

Question 35

How is ‘unreliable data’ an evaluation point for the development of attachment?

Answer 35

Data collected by Schaffer and Emerson may be unreliable as it was based on mothers’ report of their infants. Some mothers my have been less sensitive to infant’s protests and so were less likely to report them. This would create a systematic bias which could challenge the validity of the data

Question 36

How is ‘cultural variations’ an evaluation point for the development of attachment?

Answer 36

Differences between individualist and collectivist cultures where there are more multiple attachments. Sagi et al compared attachments in infants raised in communal environments with infants raised in family-based sleeping arrangements. In a Kibbutz children spend time in community children’s home cared for by a metapelet. Closeness of attachment with mothers was almost twice as common in family based arrangement than in communal environment. Suggests the stage model applies specifically to individualist cultures

Question 37

How is ‘stage theories’ an evaluation point for the development of attachment?

Answer 37

Developmental psychologists often use stage theories to describe how children’s behaviour changes as they age, however they suggest development is inflexible. They become a standard by which families are judged and may be classed as abnormal

Question 38

What are the two key animal studies of attachment?

Answer 38

Lorenz’s research and Harlow’s research

Question 39

Who was Lorenz?

Answer 39

Lorenz was an ethologist studying animal behaviour under relatively natural conditions-though his research did involve some manipulation

Question 40

What was the procedure of Lorenz’s research?

Answer 40

He took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided them into two groups. One group was left with their natural mother while the other eggs were placed in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched the first living thing they saw was Lorenz and they soon started following him around. To test this effect of imprinting Lorenz marked the two groups to distinguish them and placed them together; they had become imprinted on him. Both Lorenz and their natural mother were present

Question 41

What were the findings of Lorenz’s research?

Answer 41

The goslings quickly divided themselves up to either follow the mother or Lorenz. Lorenz’s group showed no recognition of their natural mother. He noted this process of imprinting is restricted to a very definite period, called the critical period, otherwise they will not imprint. Imprinting is similar to attachment. Lorenz did observe that imprinting to humans does not occur in some animals, like curlews

Question 42

What long-lasting effects did Lorenz find?

Answer 42

Lorenz noted several features of imprinting, for example that the process is irreversible and long lasting. Lorenz described how one of the geese who imprinted on him, called Martina, used to sleep on his bed every night. He also noted that this early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences

Question 43

Who was Harlow?

Answer 43

Harlow conducted landmark research on attachment. He called his research report ‘The Origins of Love’ and sought to demonstrate that mother love (attachment) was not based on the feeding bond between mother and infants as predicted by learning theory

Question 44

What was the procedure of Harlow’s research?

Answer 44

Harlow created two wire mothers with different ‘heads’. One was additionally wrapped in soft cloth. Eight infant rhesus monkeys were studied for a period of 165 days. For four monkeys the milk bottle was o the cloth monkey and on the plain wire mother for the other four monkeys. During that time measurements were made of the amount of time each infants spent with the two different mothers. Observations were also made of the monkey’s responses when frightened

Question 45

What were the findings of Harlow’s research?

Answer 45

All eight monkeys spent most time with cloth mother whether or not this mother had the feeding bottle. Those monkeys who fed from the wire mother only spent a short amount of time getting milk and then returned to cloth monkey. When frightened all monkeys clung to the cloth mother, and when playing with new objects they often kept one foot on the cloth mother for reassurance. Suggests that infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person offering contact comfort

Question 46

What long-lasting effects did Harlow find?

Answer 46

Harlow continued to study the rhesus monkeys as they grew up. The motherless monkeys, even those with contact comfort, developed abnormally. They were socially abnormal and sexually abnormal. He also found they had a critical period. If the motherless monkeys spent time with their monkey ‘peers’ they seemed to recover but only if this happened before three months old. Having more than six months with only a wire mother was something they could not recover from

Question 47

What are the evaluation points for Lorenz’s research?

Answer 47

Research support for imprinting, and criticisms of imprinting

Question 48

How does research support for imprinting evaluate Lorenz’s research?

Answer 48

Number of other studies demonstrate imprinting in animals, so support Lorenz’s research and conclusions. Eg Guiton demonstrated that chicks exposed to yellow rubber globes for feeding during the first few weeks became imprinted on the gloves, supporting the view that young animals are not born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object, but anything moving that is present in the critical period.

Question 49

How do criticisms of imprinting evaluate Lorenz’s research?

Answer 49

Some dispute over characteristics of imprinting. Original concept of imprinting, that an encounter with an appropriate object leads to the image of that object being stamped irreversibly on nervous system, was accepted for many years. Now it’s understood that imprinting is more ‘plastic and forgiving mechanism’. Eg Guiton could reverse the imprinting in chicks. It is also now thought that imprinting may not be so different from any other kind of learning, which can also take place rapidly with little conscious effort and is fairly reversible

Question 50

What are the evaluation points for Harlow’s research?

Answer 50

Confounding variables, generalising animal studies to human behaviour, and ethics of Harlow’s study

Question 51

How do confounding variables evaluate Harlow’s research?

Answer 51

One criticism of the research was that the two stimulus objects varied in more ways than being cloth covered or not. The two heads were also different, which acted as a confounding variable as it varied systematically with the independent variable. It is possible that the reason the monkeys preferred one mother to the other was because the cloth covered monkey had a more attractive head, so the conclusions of the study lack internal validity

Question 52

How is ‘generalising animal studies to human behaviour’ an evaluation point for Harlow’s research?

Answer 52

Aim of animal studies is to generalise conclusions to human behaviour. However, humans differ in important ways, eg most importantly because much behaviour is governed by conscious decisions. However some observations of animal attachment are mirrored by studies in humans, eg Harlow’s research is supported by Schaffer and Emerson’s findings that infants were not most attached to the person who fed them

Question 53

How do the ethics of Harlow’s study, evaluate his research into attachment?

Answer 53

Harlow’s study could not be done with humans, but then there is the question of whether it should be done with monkeys. The study created lasting emotional harm as the monkeys later found it difficult to form relationships with peers. In the other hand it can be justified as it had a significant effect on our understanding of the process of attachment and has led to better care for human infants. Do the benefits outweigh the costs (NOPE-ANIMALS CANNOT CONSENT MAKING IT LESS ETHICAL-THEY FEEL ALL THE PAIN THAT HUMANS DO, THEY JUST CANNOT SAY NO!)

Question 54

What are two explanations of attachment?

Answer 54

Learning theory, and Bowlby’s theory

Question 55

What is learning theory?

Answer 55

Learning theory proposes that all behaviour is learned rather than inborn. When children are born they are tabula rasa (blank slates) and everything they become can be explained in terms of the experiences they have. Behaviourists suggest all behaviour is learned either through classical or operant conditioning

Question 56

How does classical conditioning explain attachment?

Answer 56

During an infants early weeks and months certain things become associated with food because they are present at the time when the infant is fed. This might include the infant’s mother, the chair she sits in to feed the infant or some sounds that might always be present. These are all neutral stimulus. If regularly and consistently associated with a UCS it takes on properties of the UCS and becomes the CS creating the CR. The person who feeds the infant becomes a CS and alone gives the infant happiness

Question 57

How does operant conditioning explain attachment?

Answer 57

When an infant is hungry there is a drive to reduce that discomfort. When they are fed, the drive is reduced and this produces a feeling of pleasure. This is rewarding (positive reinforcement). The behaviour that led to being fed is more likely to be repeated in the future as it was rewarding. Food becomes primary reinforcer as it supplies the reward. Through classical conditioning the person who supplies the food becomes a secondary reinforcer for avoiding discomfort and attachment occurs because child seeks person who supplies the reward

Question 58

What is social learning theory?

Answer 58

It is a further development of learning theory by Bandura. Hay and Vespo suggested that modelling could be used to explain attachment behaviours. They proposed that children observe their parents’ affectionate behaviour and imitate this. Parents would also deliberately instruct their children about how to behave in relationships and reward appropriate attachment behaviours such as giving kisses/hugs

Question 59

What are the evaluation points for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 59

Learning theory is based on research with animals, contact comfort is more important than food, learning theory has some explanatory power, drive reduction theory is largely ignored today, and an alternative explanation

Question 60

How is ‘learning theory is based on research with animals’ an evaluation point for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 60

Learning theory is largely based on studies with non-human animals such as dogs, rats and pigeons. Behaviourists believe there is no difference between humans and other animals in terms of learning. However non-behaviourists argue that attachment involves innate predispositions and mental activity that could be explained in terms of conditioning. Behaviourist explanations may lack validity because they present an oversimplified version of human behaviour

Question 61

How is ‘contact comfort is more important than food’ an evaluation point for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 61

Main limitation of learning theory as an explanation for attachment is it suggests food is they key element in forming attachments. There is strong evidence to show feeding has nothing to do with attachment (Harlow’s study which was supported by Schaffer and Emerson’s research)

Question 62

How is ‘learning theory has some explanatory power’ an evaluation point for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 62

Learning theory may not provide a complete explanation of attachment but it has some value. Infants do learn through association and reinforcement, but food may not be the main reinforcer. It may be that attention and responsiveness from a caregiver are important rewards that assist in the formation of attachment. Such reinforcers were not part of the learning theory account. It may also be responsiveness is something that infants imitate and thus learn about how to conduct relationships

Question 63

How is ‘drive reduction theory is largely ignored today’ an evaluation point for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 63

Drive reduction was very popular in 1940s but is no longer used by psychologists, and there are many reasons why it was rejected. It can only explain a limited number of behaviours as many people do things that have nothing to do with reducing discomfort and may increase discomfort such as bungee jumping. Also it doesn’t adequately explain how secondary reinforcers work-they do not directly reduce discomfort, yet they are reinforcing. Eg money is a secondary reinforcer-it itself does not reduce discomfort but it reinforces as we are motivated by money

Question 64

How is ‘an alternative explanation’ an evaluation point for the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 64

One main reason why learning theory was rejected as an account of attachment is due to a better theory. Bowlby’s theory has many advantages over learning theory. It can explain why attachments form whereas learning theory only says how and offers no explanation of advantages of attachment. Bowlby’s theory says advantages are protection from harm so it has evolved to enhance survival. Bowlby also offers a better explanation of facts eg it can explain Schaffer and Emerson’s findings that infants are not always most strongly attached to the person who feeds them

Question 65

What is Bowlby’s theory of attachment?

Answer 65

Bowlby’s Monotropic attachment theory

Question 66

What three things are discussed by Bowlby’s monotropic attachment theory?

Answer 66

Why attachment forms, how attachment forms and the consequences of attachment

Question 67

According to Bowlby’s monotropic attachment theory, why does attachment form?

Answer 67

Lorenz’s imprinting research led Bowlby to assume a similar process operated in humans. Attachment behaviour evolved as it serves an important survival function of protection. It is important that attachments are formed in two directions-parents must also be attached to their infants in order to ensure they are cared for and survive so offspring will produce subsequent generations

Question 68

What three things does Bowbly talk about in regards to how attachment forms?

Answer 68

The critical period, social releasers and monotropy

Question 69

How is the critical period part of how attachment forms?

Answer 69

Babies have an innate drive to become attached. Innate behaviours often have a critical period. For attachment it is around three to six months. If infants don’t attach in this time they may have difficulty forming attachments later on. Bowlby proposed that attachmemt is determined by sensitivity. His views were influenced by Ainsworth whose observations of mothers led her to suggest that the infants who seemed most strongly attached were ones with mothers who were more responsive, cooperative and accessible

Question 70

How are social releasers part of how attachment forms?

Answer 70

Social releasers are important during this time to ensure that attachments develop from parent to infant. Bowlby suggested one important mechanism in this process are social releasers such as smiling and having a ‘babyface’ all of which elicit caregiving. These social releasers are innate mechanisms that explain how attachments to infants are formed

Question 71

How is monotropy part of how attachment forms?

Answer 71

Bowlby proposed that infants have one special emotional bond (monotropy)-the primary attachment relationship. This individual is often the infants biological mother, but not always. Infants also form many secondary attachments that provide an important emotional safety net and are important for healthy psychological and social development

Question 72

According to Bowlby’s theory, what are the consequences of attachment?

Answer 72

The importance of monotropy is that an infant has one special relationship and forms a mental representation (internal working model) which has several consequences. Short term it gives the child insight into the caregiver’s behaviour and enables the child to influence the caregiver’s behaviour so a true partnership is formed. In the long term it acts as a template for all future relationships as it generates expectations about what intimate, loving relationships are like

Question 73

What is the continuity hypothesis?

Answer 73

It proposes that individuals who are strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competent whereas infants who are not strongly attached have more social and emotional difficulties in childhood and adulthood-there is continuity from infancy to adulthood in terms of emotional type

Question 74

What are the evaluation points for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 74

Is attachment adaptive, a sensitive period rather than ‘critical, multiple attachment versus monotropy, continuity hypothesis and an alternative explanation

Question 75

How is ‘is attachment adaptive?’ an evaluation point for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 75

Attachment=important in emotional development but it may be less critical for survival. Bowlby suggested attachment develops over three months, which is a very late mechanism to protect infants. For ancestors it would have been vital to attach straight away. However, attachment is less necessary when infants are very young as they don’t need to ‘cling on’, they are carried, however it is more necessary when they start crawling and this is when attachments in humans develop suggesting it is adaptive

Question 76

How is ‘a sensitive period rather than critical’ an evaluation point for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 76

Psychologists studied children who fail to attach in critical period of 3-6 months. According to Bowlby they should not be able to form attachment after this. Rutter et al shows this is true to an extent, it is less likely but not impossible, so sensitive period is more suitable than critical period

Question 77

How is ‘multiple attachment versus monotropy’ an evaluation point for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 77

Multiple attachment model suggests no primary or secondary attachments as all attachments are integrated into one internal working model. However this may not be so different to what Bowlby intended as he does talk about secondary attachments contributing to social development, but healthy development requires one central person ‘higher’ than others in a hierarchy. Prior and Glasler conclude that evidence still points to the hierarchal model as suggested by Bowlby’s concept of monotropy

Question 78

How is ‘continuity hypothesis’ an evaluation point for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 78

According to Bowlby’s theory, one outcome of attachment is the effect on subsequent relationships. Tested by Minnesota parent-child study which followed participants from infancy to late adolescence and fond continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour. Individuals classified as securely attached in infancy were highest rated for social competence later in childhood, were less isolated and more popular and empathetic, supporting the continuity hypothesis

Question 79

How is ‘an alternative explanation’ an evaluation point for Bowlby’s theory as an explanation of attachment?

Answer 79

Temperament hypothesis proposes infant’s innate emotional personality (temperament) may explain attachment behaviour. Infants with easy temperament are more likely to become strongly attached as it is easier to interact with them. Belsky and Rovine support this by finding infants 1-3 days old with behavioural instabilities were more likely to be later judged as insecurely attached. This suggests attachment is due to the infants behaviours rather than having one central attachment figure, however Belsky and Rovine suggest an interaction between the two (mothers perceptions of their infants temperament influenced the mothers responsiveness)

Question 80

What is the key study of types of attachment?

Answer 80

Ainsworth’s study. Ainsworth et al devised the strange situation to be able to systematically test the nature of attachment. The aim was to see how infants (aged between 9 and 18 months) behave under conditions of mild stress and also novelty

Question 81

What was the procedure for Ainsworth’s strange situation?

Answer 81

Research room is a novel environment, 9x9 foot space often marked into 16 squares to help record infants movements. Procedure consisted of eight episodes, each designed to highlight certain behaviours

Question 82

What were the eight stages of the strange situation, and what was each stage assessing?

Answer 82

1) parent and infant play. 2) Parent sits while infant plays to assess use of parent as secure base. 3) Stranger enters and talks to parent to assess stranger anxiety. 4) Parent leaves, infant plays, stranger offers comfort if needed to assess separation anxiety. 5) Parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed and stranger leaves to assess reunion behaviour. 6) Parent leaves so infant is alone to assess separation anxiety. 7) Stranger enters and offers comfort to assess stranger anxiety. 8) Parent returns, greets infant and offers comfort to assess reunion behaviour

Question 83

How was data collected in the strange situations study?

Answer 83

Typically collected by a group of observers using a video recorder or one-way mirror. They may record what the infant does every 15 seconds using behaviour categories (proximity and contact seeking behaviours, contact maintaining behaviours, proximity and interaction avoiding behaviours, contact and interaction resisting behaviours, and search behaviours)

Question 84

What were the findings of the strange situation study?

Answer 84

Found three types of attachment. Secure attachment, insecure-avoidant, and insecure resistant

Question 85

What is the secure attachment type?

Answer 85

High willingness to explore, moderate stranger anxiety, some easy to soothe when separated and enthusiastic behaviour at reunion. 66% of infants were in this category

Question 86

What is the insecure avoidant attachment type?

Answer 86

High willingness to explore, low stranger anxiety, they were indifferent when separated and avoided contact at reunion. 22% of infants were in this category

Question 87

What is the insecure resistant attachment type?

Answer 87

Low willingness to explore, high stranger anxiety, they were distressed when separated and seeks/rejects at reunion. 12% of infants were in this category

Question 88

What are the evaluation points for the Strange situation study?

Answer 88

Ethics, method and real-world application

Question 89

How does ‘ethics’ evaluate the strange situation study into types of attachment?

Answer 89

Babies cannot give informed consent as they cannot understand, however parental consent can be obtained . The babies were not protected from harm as they were purposefully put into situations to measure their levels of distress (which were very high for insecure resistant types), however they were comforted by their mothers almost straight away. Also the levels of distress were not more than normal for children this age as they are normally left on their own eg nursery

Question 90

How does ‘the method’ evaluate the strange situation study into types of attachment?

Answer 90

It had high levels of inter rater reliability (0.94 (1=perfect)) showing the experiment is reliable as there was a lot of agreement so it shows attachment types are clear and defined. However there was low internal validity as they did not measure what they wanted to as they wanted to assess quality of attachments formed and found 3 types, but they were actually just measuring the quality of attachment with one parent-not all attachments

Question 91

How does ‘real-world application’ evaluate the strange situation study into types of attachment?

Answer 91

It can help explain to parents about their children’s behaviour, and their levels of distress in certain situations, and intervention strategies can be developed. Therefore the research can be used in the real world to help improve children’s lives and relationships which will especially help them in the future

Question 92

What is the key study into cultural variations in attachment, and what was the procedure?

Answer 92

Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg. They conducted a meta analysis from 32 studies of attachment behaviour, together examining over 2,000 strange situation classifications in eight countries (US, China, Japan, Israel, Sweden, Netherlands, Great Britain, and West Germany). They were interested to see whether there would be evidence that inter-cultural differences existed. Also interested to find out whether there were intra-cultural differences

Question 93

What were the results of Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta analysis

Answer 93

The differences were small. Secure attachment was most common in every country. Insecure-avoidant was next most common in every country except Israel and Japan (which were collectivist at the time). With reference to variation within cultures, they found this was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures

Question 94

What conclusion can be drawn from Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta analysis?

Answer 94

That the global pattern across cultures appears to be similar to that found in the US. Secure attachment is the ‘norm’-it is the most common form of attachment in all countries. This supports the idea that secure attachment is ‘best’ for healthy social and emotional development. These cultural similarities support the view that attachment is an innate and biological process

Question 95

What studies support Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study?

Answer 95

Other studies support their main finding. For example, Tronick et al studied an African tribe, the Efe, from Zaire who live in extended family groups. The infants were looked after and even breastfed by different women but usually slept with their own mother at night. Despite such differences in childrearing practices, the infants, at six months still showed one primary attachment. Showing cultural similarities

Question 96

What studies show cultural differences?

Answer 96

Grossman and Grossman, and Takahashi

Question 97

What did Grossman and Grossman find?

Answer 97

German infants tended to be classified as insecurely rather than securely attached. This may be due to different childrearing practices. German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance between parents and children, so infants do not engage in proximity-seeking behaviours in the Strange situation and so appear to be insecurely attached

Question 98

What did Takahashi find?

Answer 98

Used the strange situation to study 60 middle class Japanese infants and their mothers and found similar rates of secure attachment to those found by Ainsworth et al. However the Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure avoidant attachment and high rates of insecure resistant. The Japanese infants were distressed when left alone and their response was so extreme that for 90% of the infants the study was stopped at this point

Question 99

What is an explanation for the cultural differences in attachment when looking at Japan?

Answer 99

The cultural variation might be accounted for in terms of different childcare practices. In Japan infants rarely experience separation from their mothers, which would explain why they were more distressed in the strange situation than American infants, which would make them appear to be insecurely attached

Question 100

What is the overall conclusion for cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 100

The studies suggest that, despite the fact that there are cultural variations in infant care arrangements, the strongest attachments are still formed with the infant’s mother. The research also shows, however, there are differences in the patterns of attachment that can be related to differences in cultural attitudes and practices

Question 101

What are the evaluation points for cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 101

Similarities may bot be innately determined, nation rather than culture, cross-cultural research, culture bias and indigenous theories of attachment

Question 102

How does ‘similarities may not be innately determined’ evaluate cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 102

According to Bowlby’s theory, the reason for universal similarities in how attachments form is due to attachment being an innate mechanism, unmodified by culture. Van IJzenddorn and Kroonenberg suggest at least some cultural similarities might be explained by the effects of mass media, which spread ideas about parenting so, as a result, children all over the world are exposed to similar influences. This means cultural similarities may not be due to innate biological influences but due to globalisation

Question 103

How does ‘nation rather than culture’ evaluate cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 103

The meta analysis drew conclusions about cultural differences yet they actually were not comparing cultures but countries. Within each country there are many different subcultures, each of which may have different childcare practices, eg studies in Tokyo and more rural areas of Japan had different results. This demonstrates why they found more variation within cultures than between cultures

Question 104

How does ‘cross-cultural research ‘ evaluate cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 104

An issue of this is the ‘tools’ tat are used. Psychologists measure behaviour using things like intelligence tests or observational methods like strange situations. These are related to the cultural assumptions of the technique designer. Eg in the strange situation is it assumed that willingness to explore is a sign of secure attachment, however for some cultures that is not the case. In Japan, dependence rather than independence would be the sign of secure attachment. Imposed etic is used to describe the use of a technique designed in one culture but imposed on another, reducing validity

Question 105

How does ‘culture bias’ evaluate cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 105

Rothbaum et al argued it isn’t just methods used in attachment research that aren’t relevant to other cultures but also the theory because it is so rooted in American culture. Rothbaum et al looked in particular at the contrasts between American and Japanese culture and found the continuity hypothesis does not have the same meaning in both cultures

Question 106

How does ‘indigenous theories of attachment’ evaluate cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 106

Rothbaum et al suggest the benefit of research on cultural variations is that psychologists should be able to produce a set of indigenous theories-explanations of attachment rooted in individual cultures. There may be a small set of universal principles, such as need for protection, but in general, childcare practices will be related to cultural values. It may be that Rothbaum et al overstated the case though, as Posada and Jacobs found actually a lot of evidence that supports universality of attachment from many countries. Prior and Glaser conclude expressions of maternal sensitivity and manifestations of secure base behaviour may vary across cultures, but the core concepts are universal

Question 107

What is Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 107

Bowlby proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation would have long term consequences in terms of emotional development

Question 108

What are the three important areas of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 108

The value of maternal care, the critical period and long-term consequences

Question 109

What is the value of maternal care in terms of maternal deprivation theory?

Answer 109

Previously, the long term effects of separation were not considered. It was assumed that a good standard of food and physical care was the key importance of good care, so if separated from mother, this is all that needed to be maintained. However Bowlby believed infants and children need ‘warm, intimate, continuous relationship with mother’ or a permanent substitute to ensure continuing normal mental health

Question 110

What is the critical period in terms of maternal deprivation theory?

Answer 110

A young child that is denied care due to frequent or prolonged separations can become emotionally disturbed it it occurs before the critical period of two and a half years with a continuing risk up until age 5. However, this can be avoided is there is a permanent mother substitute during this time

Question 111

What are the long term consequences of maternal deprivation?

Answer 111

Bowlby suggested that the long term consequence of deprivation was emotional maladjustment or even mental health problems such as depression. This was demonstrated in his key study

Question 112

What is the key study into maternal deprivation?

Answer 112

Bowlby’s 44 juvenile thieves study

Question 113

What was the procedure for the 44 thieves study?

Answer 113

Bowlby analysed case histories of patients in Child Guidance Clinic. There were 88 participants. 44 had been caught stealing and were suggested by Bowlby to be affectionless psychopaths, and the other 44 were the control group

Question 114

What are affectionless psychopaths?

Answer 114

They lacked normal signs of affection, shame or sense of responsibility. Such characteristics enabled them to be ‘thieves’. They could steal from others because it didn’t matter to them

Question 115

What were the findings of the 44 thieves study?

Answer 115

Individuals diagnosed as affectionless thieves had experienced frequent early separations from their mothers. 86% of the affentionless thieves experienced frequent separations. Furthermore none of the control participants experienced early separations whereas 39% of all thieves had experienced early separations. These often consisted on continual or repeated stays in foster homes or hospitals, when the children were scarcely visited by families. The findings link early separations with affectionless psychopathy

Question 116

What are the evaluation points for Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 116

Physical and emotional separation, support for long term effects, real world application, individual differences and deprivation vs privation

Question 117

How does ‘physical and emotional separation’ evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 117

People assume deprivation is physical separation, but it could also be related to psychological separation. Being depressed would mean even though a mother is physically present, she may be unable to provide suitable emotional care, so deprive her children of care. Radke-Yarrow et al studied severely depressed mothers and found 55% of the children were insecurely attached, compared to 29% of the non-depressed group, showing psychological separation can lead to deprivation

Question 118

How does ‘support for long term effects’ evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 118

The effects of maternal deprivation can be considered in terms of vulnerability. Experiencing early maternal deprivation doesn’t always result in negative outcomes, but it creates a likelihood it will happen. Bifulco et al studied women who experienced separation from mother either because of maternal death or temporary separation of more than a year, and found 25% later experienced depression or anxiety, compared with 15% who had no separation. The mental health problems were much greater in women whose loss occurred before age 6, supporting Bowlby’s critical period

Question 119

How does ‘real-world application’ evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 119

Bowlby’s study and theory had enormous impact on post-war thinking about childrearing and on how children were looked after in hospitals. Before Bowlby’s research children were separated from parents when they spent time in hospital, and visiting was discouraged or forbidden. One of Bowlby’s colleagues, Robertson, filmed a two year old girl Laura during eight days in hospital. She seemed frequently distressed and begs to go home. Bowlby and Robertson’s work led to major social change in the way children were cared for in hospital

Question 120

How does ‘individual differences’ evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 120

Research shows not all children are affected by emotional disruption in the same way. Barrett reviewed studies on separation and concluded that securely attached children may sometimes cope reasonably well, whereas insecurely attached children become especially distressed. Another study by Bowlby reached a similar conclusion that children who coped better may have been more securely attached and so more resilient

Question 121

How does ‘deprivation vs privation’ evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 121

Rutter’s book ‘Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, criticises Bowlby’s view of deprivation as it didn’t make clear whether the child’s attachment bond had formed but been broken, or had never formed in the first place. Rutters view was that the lack of an attachment bond would have potentially far more serious consequences for the child than loss of attachment bond. Therefore he used the term privation to refer to situations where child fails to develop attachment, and deprivation were a bond develops but is disrupted

Question 122

What is a key study into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 122

Rutter and Sonuga-Barke’s romanian orphan study

Question 123

What was the procedure for Rutter and Sonuga-Barke’s Romanian orphan study?

Answer 123

The study started in early 1990s, called ERA (English and Romanian adoptees). The study includes 165 Romanian children who spent early lives in Romanian institutions and suffered effects of institutionalisation. Of this group, 111 were adopted before age 2, and a further 54 by age 4. The adoptees have been tested at regular intervals (age 4, 6, 11, 15) to assess physical, cognitive and social development. Information also gathered in interviews with parents and teachers. Progress compared to control group of 52 British children adopted in the UK before age 6months

Question 124

What were the findings from Rutter and Sonuga-Barke’s Romanian orphan study?

Answer 124

At the time of adoption, Romanian orphans lagged behind their British counterparts on all measures of physical, cognitive and social development. They were smaller, weighed less and were classified as mentally retarded. By age 4 some had caught up to the British infants, and this was true for almost all Romanian children adopted before age 6months. Subsequent follow ups have confirmed that significant deficits remain in a substantial minority who experienced institutional care beyond 6months. Many adopted after 6months old showed disinhibited attachments and problems with peer relationships. Suggests long term consequences may be less severe than once thought if children have opportunity to form attachments, however those that don’t form attachments are likely to have more severe consequences

Question 125

What other studies look at Romanian orphans?

Answer 125

Le Mare and Audet in Canada, and Zeanah et al

Question 126

What was Le Mare and Audet’s study?

Answer 126

Reported the findings from a longitudinal study of 36 Romanian orphans adopted to families in Canada. The dependent variables in this study have been physical growth and health. The adopted orphans were physically smaller than a matched control group at age four and a half years, but this difference disappeared by ten and a half years. The same was true for physical health. This suggests recovery is possible from the effects of institutionalisation on physical development

Question 127

What was Zeanah et al’s study?

Answer 127

In a Romanian-based study, they compared 136 Romanian children who had on average spent 90% of their lives in an institution, to a control group of Romanian children who had never been in an institution. The children were aged 12-31 months and were assessed in the Strange Situation. The institutionalised children showed signs of disinhibited attachment

Question 128

What are examples of the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 128

Physical underdevelopment (usually physically small-deprivation dwarfism), intellectual under functioning (cognitive development affected by emotional deprivation), disinhibited attachment (a form of insecure attachment where children don’t discriminate between people they choose as attachment, and will treat near-strangers with inappropriate familiarity/attention seeking), poor parenting (Quinton et al found women who had been institutionalised as children have extreme difficulties acting as parents-more of the ex-institutional women had children who had spent time in care)

Question 129

What are the evaluation points for Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 129

Individual differences, real life application, value of longitudinal studies, deprivation is only one factor, and institutionalisation may just be slow development

Question 130

How does ‘individual differences’ evaluate Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 130

Some research suggests individuals who don’t form a primary attachment in early sensitive period are unable to recover, though this isn’t true of all children who experience institutionalisation. In all studies, some children were not as strongly affected. Rutter suggested it might be that some children received special attention in institution eg if they smiled more maybe, so they did have some early attachment experiences

Question 131

How does ‘real-life application’ evaluate Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 131

Outcome of research into institutionalisation is to apply understanding to improving lives of children places in care. The Romanian orphan research points specifically to importance of early adoption. In the past, mothers who were going to give a baby up for adoption were encouraged to nurse the baby for a significant time period. By the time the baby was adopted the sensitive period may have passed making it difficult to form secure attachments. Now most babies are adopted within their first week of life, so adoptive children now are just as securely attached to mothers as non-adopted babies

Question 132

How does ‘value of longitudinal studies’ evaluate Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 132

Importance of Romanian orphan studies is they followed lives of children over many years (longitudinal studies). They take a lot of time so they take a lot of planning and waiting for results, but have large benefits. Without them we may mistakenly conclude there are major effects due to early institutional care, whereas some of these studies show the effects may disappear after sufficient time and with suitable high-quality care

Question 133

How does ‘deprivation is only one factor’ evaluate Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 133

Romanian orphans faced much more than emotional deprivation. The physical conditions were appalling, which impacted health. The lack of cognitive stimulation would also affect their development. It is more likely that damage only occurs when there are multiple risk factors. It is also the case that, for many institutionalised children, poor care in infancy is followed by poor subsequent care, such as difficulty living in poverty, experiencing parental disharmony etc

Question 134

How does ‘institutionalisation may just be slow development’ evaluate Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 134

One finding from Romanian study was that at the last assessment, at age 11, a lower number of children had disinhibited attachment. It may be that the effects of institutionalisation do disappear over time if children have good quality emotional care. It may be that ex-institutional children need more time than normal to mature sufficiently and learn to cope with relationships. This is a criticism of the research as it implies that the effects may be irreversible, whereas this may not be true

Question 135

What is the role of the internal working model in terms of the influence of early attachment?

Answer 135

Bowlby’s concept of the internal working model is similar to a schema. An infant learns about a relationship from experience-they learn what relationships are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other. It is an ‘operable’ model of self and attachment partner, based on their joint attachment history. It is operable because it is used to predict the behaviour of other people in the future

Question 136

What is a key study into the influence of early attachment?

Answer 136

Hazan and Shaver designed a study to test the internal working model

Question 137

What was the procedure of Hazan and Shaver’s study?

Answer 137

They placed a Love Quiz in an American small-town publication. The quiz asked questions about current attachment experiences and about attachment history to identify current and childhood attachment types. The questionnaire also asked questions about attitudes towards love, an assessment of the internal working model. They analysed 620 responses, 205 from men and 415 from women, from a fair cross-section of the population

Question 138

What were the findings of Hazan and Shaver’s study?

Answer 138

When analysing self-report of attachment history they found the prevalence of attachment types was similar to in infancy-56% secure, 25% avoidant and 19% resistant. They also found a positive correlation between attachment type and love experiences. Securely attached adults described love experiences as happy, friendly, trusting, emphasising accepting and supporting partner despite faults. These relationships were more enduing-10 years on average compared to 5/6 for resistant and avoidant. Also found relationship between conception of love (internal working model) and attachment style-securely attached tended to have a positive internal working model

Question 139

What behaviours are influenced by the internal working model?

Answer 139

Childhood friendships, poor parenting, romantic relationships, and mental health

Question 140

How are childhood friendships affected by the internal working model?

Answer 140

The Minnesota child-parent study found continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour. Individuals classified as securely attached in infancy were highest rated for social competence later in childhood, were less isolated and more popular, and more empathetic. This can be explained in terms of internal working model because securely attached infants have higher expectations that others are friendly and trusting, enabling easier relationships with others

Question 141

How is poor parenting affected by the internal working model?

Answer 141

Harlow’s research with monkeys also demonstrated a link between poor attachment and later difficulties with parenting. A study by Quinton et al showed that the same is true in humans. The lack of an internal working model means individuals lack a reference point to subsequently form relationships with own children

Question 142

How are romantic relationships affected by the internal working model?

Answer 142

The study by Hazan and Shaver demonstrated a link between early attachment type and later relationships. Individuals who were securely attached had longer lasting romantic relationships

Question 143

How is mental health affected by the internal working model?

Answer 143

Lack of attachment during critical period in development would result in lack of internal working model. Children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure, an inability to interact and relate to others that is evident before the age of five, and experience of severe neglect or frequent change of caregivers. For some time a condition called attachment disorder has been recognised but it has recently been classed as a distinct psychiatric condition and included in the DSM

Question 144

What are the evaluation points for the influence of early attachment?

Answer 144

Research is correlational, retrospective classification, overly determinist, low correlations, and an alternative explanation

Question 145

How does ‘research is correlational’ evaluate the influence of early attachment?

Answer 145

Research linking the internal working model/early attachment with later relationship experiences is correlational rather than experimental and therefore we can’t claim the relationship between early attachment and eg later love is one of cause and effect. It is possible that they are both caused by another variable eg innate temperament (Kagan’s temperament hypothesis)

Question 146

How does ‘retrospective classification’ evaluate the influence of early attachment?

Answer 146

Most studies eg Hazan and Shaver rely on retrospective classification-asking adults questions abut early lives to assess infant attachment. Such recollections are likely to be flawed as out memories of the past aren’t always accurate, but longitudinal studies also support Hazan and Shaver’s findings (Simpson et al)-supports the view that attachment type does predict relationships in adult life

Question 147

How does ‘overly determinist’ evaluate the influence of early attachment?

Answer 147

Research on influence of early attachment suggests very early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships, therefore children who are insecurely attached at age one are doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults. his is not the case as researchers have found lots of evidence where participants experiencing happy adult relationships were not securely attached as infants. As Simpson et al conclude, the research doesn’t suggest that an ‘individuals past inalterably determines the future course of their relationships’

Question 148

How does ‘low correlations’ evaluate the influence of early attachment?

Answer 148

Not all research has strong positive correlation between early attachment and later relationships. Fraley conducted a review of 27 samples where infants were assessed in infancy and later reassessed. He found correlations ranging from .50 to as low as .10. Such correlations don’t suggest attachment type is very stable, but Fraley suggested one reason for low correlations may be because insecure anxious attachment is more unstable, such low correlations would pull down the overall correlations

Question 149

How does ‘an alternative explanations’ evaluate the influence of early attachment?

Answer 149

Feeney argues adult attachment patterns may be properties of the relationship rather than the individual. The alternative explanation to early relationships causing later attachment types explaining why securely attached infants have more positive long lasting relationships, is that adult relationships are guided by a self-verification process-the tendency to seek others who confirm your expectations of relationships. Therefore it is adult secure relationship that is causing the adult attachment type, rather than vice versa