Psychology-Approaches COPY Flashcards
1
Q
Who was the first person to call themselves a psychologist?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
2
Q
What did he believe?
A
That all aspects of nature, including the human mind, could be studied scientifically
3
Q
What did he study?
A
Only aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions, including reaction time, sensation and perceptions
4
Q
What was Wundt’s aim?
A
To study the structure of the human mind, he believed the best way to do this was to break down behaviours such as sensation and perception into their basic elements
5
Q
How did he do this?
A
His approach was referred to as structuralism and the technique he used was introspection
6
Q
What did he realise?
A
Higher mental processes such as learning, language and emotions couldn’t be studied in these strict controlled experiments, instead they were general trends amongst groups of people he later referred to as cultural psychology
7
Q
Where does the word ‘introspection’ come from?
A
The latin meaning ‘looking into’
8
Q
What is introspection?
A
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional state
9
Q
What is introspective ability?
A
It allows us to observe our inner world, just as perceptual ability allows us to observe and make sense of the outer world
10
Q
What did Wundt claim about introspection?
A
With sufficient training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspection
11
Q
What is an example of this?
A
Observers might be shown an object and asked to reflect upon how they were perceiving it. This information could then be used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in perception, reaction time etc
12
Q
What happened in Wundt’s studies of perception?
A
Participants would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli (audio or images) and were then asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing as they experienced the stimuli, making it possible to compare different participants’ reports in responses to the same stimuli, to establish general theories about perception and other mental processes
13
Q
What is empiricism?
A
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology. Empiricism caused psychology to begin to emerge as a distinct entity
14
Q
What two major assumptions was the new scientific approach to psychology based on?
A
All behaviour is seen as being caused (determinism) and if behaviour is determined then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions, the technique used to explore these assumptions became known as the scientific method
15
Q
What does the scientific method refer to?
A
The use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
16
Q
How is it objective?
A
Researchers don’t let preconceived ideas or biases influence the collection of their data
17
Q
How is it systematic?
A
Observations or experiments are carried out in an orderly way. Measurement and recording of empirical data are carried out accurately and with due consideration for the possible influence of other factors on the results obtained
18
Q
How is it replicable?
A
Observations can be repeated by other researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained. If results aren’t replicable then they aren’t reliable and cannot be accepted as being universally true
19
Q
What is the scientific cycle?
A
- Objective, systematic and replicable observation. 2. Building, refining or falsifying. 3. Development of a scientific theory. 4. Testing. 1. 2. 3. 4. etc.
20
Q
What are the disadvantages of Wundt?
A
His methods were unreliable and introspection is not particularly accurate
21
Q
Explain the criticism that Wundt’s methods were unreliable.
A
Wundt’s structuralist approach, mainly from behaviourists, relied primary on non observable responses. Participants could share their inner processes themselves but it wasn’t observable, so his methods lacked reliability and replicability, whereas behaviourists such as Pavlov and Thorndike already were achieving reliable and replicable results with generalisable explanatory principles
22
Q
Explain the criticism that introspection isn’t particularly accurate.
A
Nisbett and Wilson 1977, claimed that we have very little knowledge of the causes of, and processes underlying, our behaviour and attitudes….Participants were unaware of factors that influenced their choice of consumer items (The study of implicit attitudes)
23
Q
What is an advantage, however, or Wundt?
A
Introspection is still useful in scientific psychology-Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003) used introspective methods to measure happiness (teenagers had random timers that went off, and when they did they had to write down what they were thinking/feeling)
24
Q
What are the strengths of a scientific approach to psychology? (3)
A
Relies on objective and systematic observation methods so knowledge gained is more than just the passive acceptance of facts….Rely on belief in determinism so they can establish causes of behaviour through empirical and replicable methods…Scientific theories can be refined or abandoned if they no longer fit in, so it’s self corrective, especially as psychologists always repeat other psychologists studies
25
What are the limitations of a scientific approach to psychology? (3)
Scientific psychologists create contrived situations that tell us little about how people act in real life due to the focus on objectivity and control...Much of the subject matter is unobservable so cant be measured with any degree of accuracy (inferential-bigger gap between the actual data from research and the explanatory theories)...Not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour can be researched through scientific method so predictions become impossible if behaviour isn't subject ti the laws and regularities implied by scientific methods
26
What is a behaviourist?
People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings
27
What is the behaviourist approach?
Rejects the vagueness of introspection and focuses on observable events (the effects of stimuli and conditions for learning to occur 'learning theory')
28
What do behaviourists believe?
Much of human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of learning known as conditioning, involving the formation of learned associations between stimuli in the environment and an organisms responses
29
What are two types of conditioning?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
30
What is classical conditioning?
All animals are born with reflexes which are made up of a stimulus and its naturally associated response. When other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus, and predict its arrival, then eventually they also trigger the same response. The animal has been 'classically conditioned'
31
Who came up with this?
Pavlov 1927
32
What was Pavlov's study?
He investigated the salivary reflex in dogs when he noticed that the animals not only salivated when food was placed in their mouths, but also reacted to that stimuli coincided with the presentation of food, such as the presence of a food bowl. He attempted to condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell
33
What happened before conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus (food) creates an unconditioned response (salivation). The Neutral stimulus (bell) creates no response
34
What happened during conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus (food) paired with the neutral stimulus (bell) creates an unconditioned response (salivation)
35
What happened after conditioning?
Conditioned response (bell) creates a conditioned response (salivation) without the presence of food
36
What are important features of classical conditioning?
Timing (between the NS and the UCS), Extinction (after too many repetitions of the CS without the UCS, the CS loses it'd ability to produce the CR), Spontaneous recovery (After extinction, if the UCS and the CS are paired again, the link between them is made more quickly), and Stimulus generalisation (after conditioning, they will also respond to other stimuli similar to the CS)
37
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcement or punishment. Organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours, and these behaviours produce consequences for that organisms, some positive and some negative. The consequence determines the repetition of the behaviour
38
Who came up with this?
Skinner 1938
39
What was Skinners study?
He developed a box for rats. The rat moves around and when it accidentally presses the level, a food pellet (reinforcer) falls into the cage. Soon the hungry rat presses the lever to obtain food. If the food stops, the rat presses the lever a few times and then abandons it (extinction)
40
What is reinforcement?
Something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour making it more likely to recur. The two main types are positive and negative reinforcement
41
What is positive enforcement?
Occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism eg food to a hungry animal or praise to a child after doing something well
42
What is negative reinforcement?
Removal of something aversive or unpleasant to restore the organism to its pre-aversive state eg hitting the 'off' button on an alarm clock allows someone to escape the unpleasant sound and restores them to the pre-alarm state
43
What are other important factors?
Schedules of reinforcement (continuous reinforcement schedule is more effective at establishing a particular response eg the rat and the lever every time food occurs...and a partial reinforcement schedule is better at avoiding extinction eg food occurs every 3rd press of the lever)..... and the other important factor is punishment
44
What is punishment?
A behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and so reduces the chance of the behaviour repeating (positive punishment is adding something unpleasant eg hitting a child....negative punishment is taking away something pleasant eg taking a phone away)
45
What is a strength of classical conditioning explanations?
Led to the development of anxiety and phobia treatments (systematic desensitisation eliminates the learned anxious response and adds in another relaxation response to the anxiety causing item through classical conditioning)
46
What is a weakness of classical conditioning explanations?
Doesn't take into consideration individual differences in human beings and across species. The relationship between conditioned response and unconditioned stimulus varies from species to species depending upon survival instinct. A dog is easily conditioned to the sight of food rather than a bell and in humans, behaviour is controlled by many factors instead of just reflexes so this conditioning can't be generalised across species so questions the validity
47
What is a strength of operant conditioning explanations?
Skinners research relied on experimental method which uses controlled conditions to discover a possible relationship between two or more variables and a cause-effect relation
48
What is a weakness of operant conditioning explanations?
Skinners study involved animals. Relying on non-humans implies that human behaviour is more complicated to be understood. The concept of free will has been undermined and the role of reinforcement has been overemphasised, undermining non observable human mental processes-a reductionist approach
49
What is a further evaluation point?
Deterministic, behaviourists ignore other perspectives such as cognitive and biological influences on behaviour
50
Who created the social learning theory?
Bandura-Bobo doll experiment of children observing aggressive or passive behaviour and then imitating it
51
What is social learning theory?
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded. It serves an informative function
52
What are the components of social learning theory?
Modelling, imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and meditational processes
53
What is modelling?
A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour. Live models are people like teachers and parents and symbolic models would be characters in the media
54
What is imitation?
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour. Whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired, compared to conditioning techniques
55
What are the key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated?
The characteristics of the model, the observers perceived ability to perform that behaviour, and the observed consequences of the behaviour
56
What is identification?
The extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels that they are similar to that person. The observer must feel that they are similar enough that they would likely experience the same outcome in that situation. It makes imitation more likely and makes social learning more effective-Andsager 2006 identification in anti-alcohol advertisement
57
What is research into identification?
Shutts et al 2010, suggests children are more likely to identify and learn from models who are similar to them, particularly same-sex models
58
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Learning that is not as a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour (Bobo doll follow up experiment)
59
What is the role of meditational processes?
Social learning theory differs from other learning approaches as it places special importance on internal meditational processes. Bandura claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the observer must form mental representations of the behaviour displayed by the model and the probable consequences of that behaviour in terms of expectancies and future outcomes. The learned behaviour will be displayed in the future if the expectation is more positive
60
What are the strengths of social learning theory?
It has useful applications and it takes into consideration a more comprehensive set of factors to explain human behaviour
61
What are the useful real life applications?
Akers 1998 found the probability of engaging in criminal behaviour increases when one is exposed to models who commit crimes, identify with those models and expect positive consequences
62
How does it take into consideration a more comprehensive set of factors to explain human behaviour?
As demonstrated in Bandura's research study, children were more aggressive when they saw aggressive behaviour being rewarded. This highlights the role of cognitive processes such as expectation of consequences so it is less deterministic than conditioning theories
63
What are the weaknesses of social learning theory?
Studies conducted to support it suffer from demand characteristics and it underestimates the influence of biological factors
64
How do the studies suffer from demand characteristics?
Bandura's ideas developed through observation of young children in a lab setting. As a consequence participants may respond to demand characteristics such as they might have picked up the cue that they have to hit the Bobo doll. Therefore they behaved in a way that was expected out of them, which may not be the case in real life. This undermines the validity and mundane realism
65
How does social learning theory underestimate the influence of biological factors?
One of the consistent findings of Bandura's study was that boys were more aggressive, which can alternatively be explained by biology and hormones differences as boys have more testosterone which is linked to aggressive behaviour, but Bandura failed to recognise this so social learning theory isn't a comprehensive explanation of human behaviour as it hasn't accounted for biological factors
66
What does cognitive psychology focus on?
How people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret information; studying processes like perception, memory, thinking and problem solving. It is necessary to look at internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour
67
What does much of cognitive psychology use?
An information processing model, whereby information received through the senses is processed by various systems in the brain, it is like how computers work which is why computing metaphors like encoding, processing and retrieval are used
68
What does the cognitive approach study?
Information processing (ways in which we extract, store and retrieve information that helps guide out behaviour)
69
What different kinds of mental processes can contribute to information processing?
Selecting important information (attention), using it so solve problems (thinking), storing it in memory and retrieving it when needed
70
What does this approach recognise?
These mental processes cannot be studies directly but must be studied indirectly by inferring what goes in as a result of measuring behaviour, enabling cognitive psychologists to develop theories about mental processes that lead to observed behaviour
71
What is a schema?
A cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in different situations
72
Why are schemas useful to us?
Because they allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amount of information we have to deal with on a daily basis
73
What is a problem with schemas?
They cause us to exclude anything that does not conform to out establish ideas about the world, instead focusing on things that confirm our pre existing beliefs and ideas
74
What is the role of a schema?
To fill in the gaps in absence of full information about a person, event or thing. Schemas tell us what to expect and so we act accordingly which can lead to the development of stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm, even when faced with new and conflicting information
75
What type of models are used in cognitive psychology?
Theoretical models and computer models
76
What are theoretical models?
Models such as the multi store model of memory or the working memory model are simplified representations based on current research evidence, often pictorial and represented by boxes and arrows indicating cause and effect or different stages. They are often incomplete, informal and frequently changed/updated EG working memory model by Baddeley and Hitch 1974 but the episodic buffer was added in 2000 by Baddeley
77
What are computer models?
Using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition. Led to focus on the way in which sensory information is coded as it passes through the system
78
What has emerged recently in cognitive psychology?
Cognitive neuroscience. PET scans and FMRI scans help understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities and emotions by showing what parts of the brain become active (Burnett et al 2009 found the medial prefrontal cortex, associated with social emotions, was among several parts of the brain involved when feeling guilt)
79
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
It has applications and it is scientific
80
How does it have applications?
It can be applied to many areas of psychology. In social psychology research into social cognition has helped psychologists to better understand how we form impressions of other people as well as the errors and biases that influence out interpretation of the causes of their behaviour. Also in psychopathology it explains how much of the dysfunctional behaviour shown can be traced back to faulty thinking processes, leading to successful treatment of illnesses such as depression and OCD using cognitive-based therapy
81
How is it scientific?
The use of the experimental method provides researchers with a rigorous method for collecting and evaluating evidence in order to reach accurate conclusions of how the mind works, so they are based on more than common sense and introspection, which can be misleading
82
What are the limitations of the cognitive approach?
Limitations of computer models, ignores emotion/motivation, and studies may lack ecological validity
83
What are the limitations of computer models?
There is an important difference between the sort of information processing in a computer program and in a human mind. Computers don't make mistakes or ignore available information, or forget anything that's been stored, whereas humans do
84
How does it ignore emotion and motivation?
It tells us how different processes take place but not why. The role of emotion and motivation is ignored, however approaches that focus on motivation generally ignore cognitive processes. The lack of focus on motivational states may be explained by the over-dependence on information processing analogies, as motivation is irrelevant to computers, but not to humans
85
Why may the studies lack ecological validity?
They generally have little in common with the participants daily lives and experiences. Eg memorising random words lists may not explain how the mind works in everyday situations so the results are harder to generalise to real life. Therefore it may lack ecological validity as it fails to reflect the behaviours that occur in real life settings
86
What is the biological approach?
Views human beings as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning
87
What are biological psychologists particularly interested in?
The genetic basis of behaviour, showing how some characteristics can be passed from generation to generation through genes. They also study the important role that chemical changes in the nervous system (neurochemistry) and hormonal changes play
88
What have these psychologists more recently become interested in?
Darwins theory of evolution which might apply to human behaviour, allowing us to understand the original adaptive significance of behaviours such as mate selection or aggression
89
What is heredity?
The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes, and is the reason why offspring take after their parents in terms of psychological characteristics
90
What do genes do?
They carry the instructions for a particular characteristic such as intelligence or temperament, but how this characteristic develops depends partly on the interaction of the gene with other genes, and partly on the influence of the environment
91
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The extent to which psychological characteristic is determined by genes or the environment
92
What is a genotype?
The genetic make up of an individual. It's a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation-the genetic code
93
What is a phenotype?
The observable characteristics of an individual. Consequences of the interaction of the genotype with the environment
94
What is the genetic basis of behaviour?
Everyone has a unique combination of genetic instructions so personality, intelligence, abilities etc differ person to person. Heritability is the amount of variability in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences between individuals. The more a trait is influenced by genetic factors, the greater its heritability eg studies on twins an intelligence which could be 60-80% due to genes
95
What is the nervous system comprised of?
The central nervous system (brain and spinal chord) and the peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic nervous systems)
96
What does the nervous system do?
Carries messages from one part of the body to another using individual nerve cells called neurones
97
What do neurones do?
They transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals. Many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control such as breathing and eating
98
What is the largest part of the brain?
The cerebrum which makes up about 85% of the total mass of the brain
99
What is the outer surface of the cerebrum?
The cerebral cortex, which is responsible for many of the higher order functions such as thought and language
100
What is the cerebrum divided into?
Hemispheres
101
What is each hemisphere divided into?
Four different parts known as lobes (frontal lobes, parietal lobes, occipital lobes and temporal loves)
102
What are the frontal lobes for?
Involved with functions such as speech, thought and learning
103
What are parietal lobes for?
Processing sensory information such as touch, temperature and pain
104
What are occipital lobes for?
Processing visual information
105
What are temporal lobes for?
Involved with hearing and memory
106
What happens when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron?
A chemical called a neurotransmitter is released, it travels from one neurone to the next across a junction called a synapse
107
What are examples of excitatory neurotransmitters?
Dopamine which is associated with drive and motivation
108
What is an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Serotonin which maintains a stable mood (Corckett et al 2008 found that when serotonin levels are low, people tend to show aggression)
109
What are hormones?
Chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland which together make up the endocrine system
110
What happens in response to a signal from the brain?
Hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands where they travel to their target cells and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface or inside cells
111
What does the presence of a hormone cause?
A pysiological reaction in the cell, altering it's activity (Carré et al 2006, studied a Canadian ice hockey team and found evidence of a surge of testosterone when playing in their home stadium, suggesting this energised them to defend their home territory)
112
What did Buss 1989 find?
Universal similarities in human mate preferences. Women desired mates with resources and males desired young, physically attractive mates
113
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
The importance of the scientific method and applications of the biological approach
114
What is the importance of the scientific method?
It is it's main method of investigation so the experiments take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers can replicate the studies, adding to the validity of the original findings. Sophisticated imaging and recording techniques has increased precision and objectivity
115
What are the applications of the biological approach?
It provides clear predictions eg about the effect of neurotransmitters or the behaviour of people who are genetically related. Leading to significant applications of biological research in the real world eg research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression led to the development of drug treatments which correct this and minimise symptoms
116
What are the limitations of the biological approach?
It is reductionist and there is a danger of it being used as an excuse/explanation for criminal behaviour
117
How is it reductionist?
The belief that complex behaviour can be broken down into its smallest components eg mental disorders are due to neurochemical imbalance. Critics argue we can't fully understand a behaviour without taking into account all other factors, it ignores the other approaches
118
How could it be used as an excuse for criminal behaviour?
Research into genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns regarding how the information will be used. It may lead to genetic screening of the population. It also creates the danger that genes may be used as the explanation and so takes the blame away from the criminal
119
What is the psychodynamic approach?
It describes any theory that emphasises change and development in the individual and is used to describe theories where drive is a central concept in this development
120
What do all these theories emphasise, apart from the importance of change?
Unconscious motives, desires and the importance of early childhood experiences
121
What is the best known psychodynamic theory?
Freudian psychoanalysis
122
What is Freud's theory of psychoanalysis?
He believed that behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than by biological factors or environmental reinforcement, and assumed that people are born with basic instincts and needs, and that behaviour is largely controlled by the unconscious mind
123
What is the role of the unconscious?
It is part of the mind that is inaccessible to conscious thought and used the iceberg metaphor to explain it. He believed most everyday actions and behaviours are product of the unconscious mind, which is revealed in slips of the tongue, creativity and in neurotic symptoms. The mind prevents traumatic memories from reaching conscious awareness and remain in the unconscious, but may cause anxiety still, which is why defence mechanisms are used to stop awareness
124
How did Freud divide up the mind?
Into three structures called the id, the ego and the superego. Each demands gratification but is frequently in conflict with the other parts
125
What is the id?
Operates solely in the unconscious. Contains the libido. It operates according to the pleasure principle i.e. it demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstances eg if a person is hungry, the id demands that they eat there and then
126
What is the superego?
It is divided into the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience is the internalisation of societal rules, and determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when these rules are broken. The ego-ideal is what a person strives towards, and is most probably determined by parental standards of good behaviour
127
What is the ego?
It mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world (reality principle) eg may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy demands. It must also compromise between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of the superego
128
What are defence mechanisms?
If faced with a situation that is unable to be dealt with rationally, defence mechanisms may be triggered. These tend to operate unconsciously and work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced. By using them, an individual will stop themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant thoughts and feelings associated with the traumatic situation
129
What are three examples of defence mechanisms?
Repression, denial and displacement
130
What is repression?
Unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. Rather than staying quietly in the unconscious, repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour
131
What is an example of repression?
A child who is abused by a parent may have no recollection of these events, but has trouble forming relationships
132
What is denial?
Refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with the event. The persona acts as though the traumatic event never happened, something those around them find to be quite strange
133
What is an example of denial?
An alcoholic will often deny they have a drinking problem even after being arrested several times for being drunk and disorderly
134
What is displacement?
Redirecting thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directed towards. Instead, they may 'take it out' on a helpless victim or object, giving their hostile feelings a route for expression, even though they are misapplied to an innocent person/object
135
What are psychosexual stages?
Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages. These are the psychosexual stages, to emphasises the imost important driving force is development is the need to express sexual energy. Freud believed that the individual experiences tension due to the build up of energy and that pleasure comes from its discharge. At each stage the energy is expressed in different ways (0-2=O, 2-3=A, 3-6=P, 6-12=L, 12+=G)
136
What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
Psychoanalysis: a pioneering approach, scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach and psychoanalysis; a comprehensive theory
137
Explain 'psychoanalysis: a pioneering approach' as a strength to the psychodynamic approach
Development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a huge shift in psychological thinking. It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering empirical evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on other observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection. Based on observations Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological rather than biological treatments for disorders, leading to successful treatments
138
Explain 'scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach' as a strength to the psychodynamic approach
Critics of psychoanalysis claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable. However many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenberg summarised 2,500 studies concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology
139
Explain 'psychoanalysis: a comprehensive theory' as a strength of the psychodynamic approach?
One of the main strengths is the comprehensive nature of the theory. As well as its therapeutic applications, many experts contend that psychoanalysis can also be used to explain many other aspects of human behaviour outside of the realm of psychology. Eg psychoanalysis has been used as a form of literary criticism. Literature such as Shakespeare's play Hamlet have repressed messages hidden beneath the surface of the text. By interpreting it using psychoanalysis concepts, you can delve into the mind of the author or character
140
What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?
Psychoanalysis is a gender biased approach, and it is a culture biased approach
141
How is psychoanalysis a gender biased approach?
Freud's views of women and female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality. Despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality. This led psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney, who broke away from Freudian theory to criticise his work, particularly his views on women and their development which is problematic not only because he treated many female patients, but also because his theories are still influential today
142
How is psychoanalysis a culture biased approach?
Sue and Sue argue that it has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being 'locked' in the unconscious, and that feeling them trhoguh therapy gives the idividual chance to deal with them in the supprotive therapeutic environment. However they claim that many cultural groups don't value insight in the same way as Western cultures. In China, eg a depressed or anxious person avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than wanting to discuss them openly. This contrasts with Western belief that open discussion and insight are helpful in therapy
143
What is humanistic psychology?
It refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and to love, and have the power to direct their own lives
144
What are the basic assumptions of humanistic psychology?
Free will, Maslow's theory, focus on the self, congruence and conditions of worth
145
How is free will part of humanistic psychology?
Unlike most other approaches, humanistic theories emphasise that people have full conscious control over their own destiny (they have free will). We are still subject to many forces including biological and societal influences, however humanistic psychologists believe that human beings are able to make significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by these other forces
146
What is Maslow's theory?
Unlike the psychoanalysts, Maslow wasn't interested in what went wrong with people, but rather he was interested in what could go right. He created a hierarchy of needs which emphasises the importance of personal growth and fulfilment, and opened the door for later movements in psychology such as positive psychology
147
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
It is usually presented in a pyramid. The most basic, psychological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs at the top. (Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualisation). Each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believe that the more basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore
148
What is self actualisation?
It is the top of the hierarchy. Maslow found that most of those who attained this level shard certain characteristics such as creativity, accepting and they had an accurate perception of the world around them. He believed that such individuals experienced self actualisation in the form of peak experiences. These are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions
149
What is focus on the self?
The self refers to how we perceive ourselves as a person. Rogers claimed that people have two basic needs: positive regard from others and a feeling of self worth. Feelings of self worth develop in childhood and are formed as a result of the child's interactions with parents. Further interactions with significant others also influence on the persons feelings of self worth. Rogers believed that how we think about ourselves and our self worth are important in determining our psychological health. The closer our self concept and our ideal self are to each other, the greater out feeling of self worth +better psychological health
150
What is congruence?
Similarity between a person's ideal self and how they perceive themselves to be in real life. Incongruence is when there is a difference. Higher congruence means better self worth though it is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist. Because most people prefer to see themselves in ways that are consistent with their self image, they may use defence mechanisms in order to feel less threatened by incongruence
151
What are conditions of worth?
Love and acceptance given by others may be unconditional (unconditional positive regard) where a person is accepted for who they are, or it may be conditional when they are only excepted if they do what others want, this leads to developing conditions of worth which are conditions people perceive significant others put upon them and they believe that without these conditions being met then they won't be accepted or seen positively
152
How has humanistic psychology influenced counselling psychology
Established that therapy works best when there is unconditional positive regard between therapist and patient
153
What are the strengths of humanistic psychology?
Maslow's hierarchy is linked to economic development, and research support for conditions of worth
154
Explain 'Maslow's hierarchy is linked to economic development' as an evaluation point
Hagerty looked at relationship between economic growth and measures of Maslow's need levels in 88 countries over 34 years. He found that countries in early stages of economic development were characterised by lower level needs. Only in advanced stages of economic development did esteem needs and self actualisation become important. Educational enrolment rates are a significant indication of the drive to self actualisation as it is seen as a measure of peoples desire to better themselves
155
Explain 'research support for conditions of worth' as an evaluation point
Research with adolescents shows evidence consistent with Rogers' view that those who experience conditional positive regard are more likely to display 'false self behaviour' (doing things to meet others expectations even when they clash with their own values). Harter et al found teens who felt they had to fulfil conditions to gain parental approval frequently end up not liking themselves due to having to create a 'false self'
156
What are the limitations of humanistic psychology?
Humanistic research methods and the humanistic approach is unrealistic
157
Explain 'humanistic research methods' as an evaluation point
Evaluating this approach scientifically is difficult as most evidence used to support the approach fails to establish a casual relationship between variables. Rogers was an advocate of non-experimental research methods, arguing they made it impossible to verify the results of counselling
158
Explain ' the humanistic approach is unrealistic' as an evaluation point
It represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. Critics argue that people are not as inherently good and 'growth oriented' as the theory suggests, and the approach doesn't adequately recognise people's capacity for pessimism and self destructive behaviour. Encouraging people to focus on their own self development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society
159
What is a further evaluation point for humanistic psychology?
There are cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs. Maslow later acknowledges that needs may appear in a different order or may be absent all together, after looking at cross cultural evidence from China showing belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community
160
What factors can be used to compare the approaches?
Determinism: the causes of behaviour, Nature vs nurture and how they see psychology as a science
161
What is behaviour caused by, according to the behaviourist approach?
The consequences of our behaviour (reinforcement history), which determines the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring. Behaviourists such as Skinner emphasise the importance of external forces in the environment (eg rewards and punishments) in shaping our behaviour (environmental determinism)
162
What is behaviour caused by, according to social learning?
Observations of others (vicarious learning) and so behaviour is largely a product of out experience (it is determined). However, although the learning process provides the "tools" to conduct a particular behaviour, it is up to the individual how and when to apply these tools (free will)
163
What is behaviour caused by, according to the cognitive approach?
Our own thought processes, which determine out behaviour. There fore the individual has some degree of control over his or her behaviour
164
What is behaviour caused by, according to the biological approach?
Physiological (eg neurochemical and hormonal) factors and/or inherited (genetic) factors, both of which are outside of our control
165
What is behaviour caused by, according to the psychodynamic approach?
Unconscious factors, which are largely unknown to us and therefore beyond our conscious control. Freud believed that even trivial phenomena such as Freudian slips are caused by unconscious factors operating within the individuals' motivational system
166
What is behaviour caused by, according to humanistic psychology?
Our own free will. Humanistic psychologists such as Maslow and Rogers believed that people exercise choice in their behaviour, rather than being at the mercy of outside forces, such as biological predispositions or reinforcement history
167
What is the origin of behaviour, according to the behaviourist approach?
Nurture, as it is a consequence of our interactions with the environment and the consequences of our behaviour within that environment
168
What is the origin of behaviour, according to social learning theory?
Primarily nurture in that people learn as a result of observing others. However, it is generally assumed that the capacity to learn from an observation of others has some adaptive value, therefore it is likely to be innate (nature)
169
What is the origin of behaviour, according to the cognitive approach?
Both nature and nurture, as though processes may be a product of innate factors or our experiences. We all share the same means of cognitive processing (nature) but problems may arise when people develop irrational thoughts and beliefs as a result of their experiences (nurture)
170
What is the origin of behaviour, according to the biological approach?
Primarily nature. Biological systems such as the CNS and the endocrine system are the product of innate factors (nature). However, experience may modify these systems, eg Maguire et al's study of London taxi drivers, which found structural changes in the brain as a result of having to learn to navigate London's complex road layout
171
What is the origin of behaviour, according to the psychodynamic approach?
Both nature and nurture. The psychodynamic approach focuses on the nature side of human behaviour in the unconscious forces (eg the demands of the id) and conflicts that we must all deal with. However, how we cope with these is in a large way a product of our upbringing (nurture)
172
What is the origin of behaviour, according to humanistic psychology?
Both nature and nurture. The humanistic approach makes various assumptions about human nature eg our drive to self actualise (nature). However it also acknowledges the problems in achieving self actualisation that arise from our experiences and upbringing eg our experience of conditional positive regard and conditions of worth (nurture)
173
The behaviourist approach's commitment to the scientific method is...
Positive, as this approach is highly objective and experimentally based. By focusing only on responses that can be accurately measured, it aligns itself with the rigour of the scientific method more than most approaches. This also allows for high degree of replication which is an important part of the scientific process
174
Social learning theory's commitment to the scientific method is...
Positive, as its research investigations are reliable and allow inferences about cause and effect to be drawn. However, this does mean that research (eg Bandura's Bobo doll studies) tend to be carried out in rather artificial settings, so can lack validity in terms of real-life behaviour
175
The cognitive approach's commitment to the scientific method is...
Positive to a degree, as most propositions can be easily tested. However, because mental processes are largely unobservable, a great deal of inference is necessary to develop models of cognitive processing
176
The biological approach's commitment to the scientific method is...
Positive, as it lends itself to experimental study. For example, the influence of neurotransmitters in a behaviour can be investigated by administrating drugs which change the levels of a particular neurotransmitter in the brain and then measuring any change in that behaviour
177
The psychodynamic approach's commitment to the scientific method is...
Mixed. Although some aspects of this approach are open to scientific investigation, there tends to be much greater reliance on case studies and subjective interpretation
178
Humanistic psychology's commitment to the scientific method is...
Largely negative. Humanistic psychologists argue that scientific research methods are derived from and suited for the natural sciences, but are not appropriate for studying the complexities of human consciousness and experience
