Sociology-Beliefs in society-theories of religion

Question 1

What are the three definitions of religion?

Answer 1

Substantive definition, functional definition and the constructionist definition

Question 2

What are substantive definitions of religion?

Answer 2

They focus on the content or substance of religious belief-involve the belief in God or supernatural. Weber defines it as belief in a superior or supernatural that is above nature and can’t be explained scientifically. They are exclusive-drawing a clear line between religious and non religious beliefs. Western bias as excludes religions like Buddhism that don’t have the western idea of god

Question 3

What are functional definitions of religion?

Answer 3

Define religion in terms of social/psychological functions. Durkheim-social integration function rather than belief in god is necessary. Inclusive-allowing to include a range of beliefs and practices that have the same function of social integration and doesn’t specify the need for belief in a god or the supernatural. However just because something promotes social integration, doesn’t make it s a religion

Question 4

What are constructionist definitions of religion?

Answer 4

Interpretive approach focusing on how members of society define religion. Not possible to create one definition. Interested in how definitions are constructed. Aldridge-follows of scientology say it’s a religion whereas some governments deny its legal status as religion and want to ban it. Don’t assume there has to be belief in God or supernatural or that it performs the same functions for all individuals

Question 5

What did Durkheim say was a key feature of religion?

Answer 5

A distinction between the sacred and the profane. However Worsley says there is no sharp division between sacred and profane

Question 6

What are sacred things?

Answer 6

Things set apart and forbidden, that inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder, and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions. Many rituals are practices are in relation to the sacred-they are collective-performed by social groups

Question 7

What are profane things?

Answer 7

Things that have no special significance and are ordinary

Question 8

How does Durkheim link religion and society?

Answer 8

The fact that the sacred evoke such powerful feelings in believers indicates that it is because they are symbols representing something of great power that Durkheim says cold only be society itself, as society is the only thing powerful enough to command such feelings. Worshipping sacred symbols is worshipping society

Question 9

What is Totemism?

Answer 9

To study the core of religion you have to go back to basic societies, so Durkheim studied the Arunta clan who periodically perform rituals such as worshipping the sacred totem. This reinforces solidarity and cohesion. They are essentially worshiping society but do not know it. Introduces idea of collective conscience-function for the individual. However this may only be useful when looking at small scale societies with one religion. Mestrovic-cannot be applied to contemporary society due to diversity which has fragmented the collective conscience

Question 10

What are the cognitive functions of religion (Durkheim)?

Answer 10

Ability to reason and think conceptually. Religion is the origin of concepts and categories needed for reasoning

Question 11

What are the psychological functions of religion?

Answer 11

Malinowski-helps individuals to cope with stress where the outcome is important but uncontrollable/uncertain (Trobriand islanders lagoon fishing and ocean fishing), and at times of life crises

Question 12

What two other functions does Parson identify that religion performs in modern society?

Answer 12

It creates and legitimates society’s central values (eg Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline)-promotes value consensus, and it is the primary source of meaning (eg answers the ‘ultimate questions’ about human condition and existence and so allows people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances and helps maintain stability)

Question 13

What is civil religion?

Answer 13

Bellah argues that is integrates society in a way that America’s many churches/religions cannot. It can claim the loyalty of all Americans and involves loyalty to the nation state, belief in God, and both of these equate to being a true American. Various rituals, symbols and beliefs (pledge of allegiance to the flag and the national anthem etc). Not a specific God, it’s the ‘American’ God, that sacralises the American way of life and binds many Americans together from different ethnic/religious backgrounds

Question 14

What are the evaluation points for the functionalist theory of religion?

Answer 14

Emphasises social nature of religion and it’s positive functions but ignores the negative aspects (oppression of women), ignores religion as a source of division/conflict especially in complex society that contains many religions, the idea of civil religion overcomes the problem to some extent by arguing societies have an overarching belief system shared by all

Question 15

How do Marxists see religion as an ideology?

Answer 15

Religion=ideological weapon used by bourgeoisie to legitimate suffering of the proletariat as something inevitable. Religion misleads proletariat into believing their suffering will reward them in the afterlife (easier for a camel to pass through the eye of the needle than it is for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of heaven)-false consciousness that distorts their view of reality

Question 16

How does Lenin explain religion, in a similar way to Marx?

Answer 16

Describes religion as ‘spiritual gin’ used to confuse proletariat and keep them in their place. Bourgeoisie manipulate proletariat and keep them from overthrowing them by creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality. Similar to the Divine Right of Kings

Question 17

How do Marxists see religion as a product of alienation?

Answer 17

Capitalism means workers don’t own what they produce and have no control over production so no freedom to express themselves as creative beings. Alienation peaks when factory workers repeat same minute skill-less/meaningless tasks. Religion is the opium of the people that dulls the pain of exploitation, however it only masks the pain, it doesn’t solve the cause, so it just distracts their attention with thoughts of rewarding afterlives

Question 18

What are the evaluation points for the marxist theory of religion?

Answer 18

Marx shows the negative points of religion but ignores positive functions such as psychological adjustment to misfortune. Althusser (a marxist) rejects the concept of alienation as unscientific and based on a romantic idea that humans have a ‘true self’. Religion doesn’t necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population eg Turner et al argue pre capitalism, Christianity was a major element of ruling class ideology but had limited impact on the peasantry

Question 19

Where do feminists see evidence of patriarchy in religion?

Answer 19

In religious organisations (mainly male dominated, even though women often participate more eg some religions forbid women from becoming priests-Armstrong sees this as marginalisation), in places of worship (segregate sexes and marginalise women-forbidden from activities such as reading from sacred texts), in sacred texts (feature male gods and prophets etc and stories are often anti female eg Eve who caused sin ), and in religious laws and customs (give women fewer rights than men and women have more rules regarding dress code etc). Armstrong notes that in middle east, women used to be central in religion and could be priests, though this has since changed

Question 20

What does Armstrong argue about evidence of patriarchy in religion?

Answer 20

Early religions often placed women at the centre, and women could become priests in the middle east however this has since changed

Question 21

What does Nawal El Saadawi argue?

Answer 21

Religion isn’t the direct cause of women’s oppression. It oppresses women due to the patriarchal society we live in

Question 22

How does Woodhead criticise feminist explanations?

Answer 22

She criticises the feminist explanations that just equate religion with patriarchy and oppression of women-although it happens in some traditional religion, it is not true of all religion

Question 23

What example does Woodhead use to show that not all religion is oppressive?

Answer 23

The hijab or veil worn by many muslim women. Western feminists tend to see it as a symbol of oppression but to the wearer it may be a means of liberation

Question 24

What does Gilliat-Ray argue about the hijab?

Answer 24

Some young British Muslim women choose to wear the hijab in order to gain parental approval to enter further education and especially employment, where Muslim women’s presence has traditionally been problematic. For them, the hijab is a symbol of liberation that allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned as immodest

Question 25

What does Brusco argue about women and religion?

Answer 25

Women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the private sphere of home and family. In Colombia, belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women. Use bible groups for support and the strongly held belief in these groups that men should respect women to gain power and influence over men

Question 26

What are piety movements

Answer 26

Conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s role, modest dress, prayer and bible study. They include Pentecostal and evangelical groups, and some forms of non-christian religions

Question 27

What does Rinaldo argue?

Answer 27

Even within conservative religions, women may sometimes find ways to further their own interests. However, she notes that it is middle-class urban women who are most likely to join piety movements. These women may already have other resources, such as education and income, with which to pursue their goals

Question 28

What are liberal protestant organisations?

Answer 28

Often committed to gender equality and women playing leading roles. These include Quakers and Unitarians. A third of Unitarian ministers are female. The Church of England has had female priests since 1992 and female bishops since 2015. Over a fifth of its priests are female