Sociology-Families and Households-Changing Patterns Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
What are the different changing family patterns?
A
Divorce, partnerships, parents/children, ethnic differences and extended families
2
Q
How is divorce changing?
A
Major increase since 1960s, and now 40% of marriages will end in divorce
3
Q
Although divorce is increasing, why was there a slight decrease?
A
Less people are marrying and instead cohabitation
4
Q
Who do most divorce applications come from?
A
Women (65%), compared to only 37% in 1946
5
Q
What types of couples are more at risk for divorce?
A
Those who marry young, have a child before they marry or cohabit before marriage, and those where one or both partners have been married before
6
Q
What are seven explanations for the increase in divorce?
A
Changes in law, declining stigma/changing attitudes, secularisation, rising expectations of marriage, women’s increased financial independence, feminist explanation, and modernity/individualisation
7
Q
How have changes in the law increased the rate of divorce?
A
Equalising the grounds, widening the grounds and making divorce cheaper
8
Q
What happened when the grounds were equalised?
A
In 1923 they were equalised for men and women, which was followed by a sharp rise in the number of divorce petitions from women
9
Q
What happened when the grounds were widened?
A
In 1971 widening the grounds made divorce easier to obtain and produced a doubling of the divorce rate almost overnight
10
Q
What happened when divorce was made cheaper?
A
Introduction of legal aid for divorce cases in 1949 lowered the cost of divorcing and so divorce rates increased
11
Q
What are other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage apart from divorce?
A
Desertion, legal separation, and ‘empty shell’ marriages-though these solutions become less popular as divorce becomes easier
12
Q
What is desertion?
A
Where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married
13
Q
What is legal separation?
A
Where a court separates the financial and legal affairs of the couple but they remain married and are not free to re-marry
14
Q
What is an empty shell marriage?
A
Where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only
15
Q
What do the changes in law fail to explain?
A
They give people the freedom to divorce more easily but don’t explain why more people should chose to take advantage of this freedom. So to fully explain the rise in divorce rates we must look at other changes too, including changes in public attitude
16
Q
What is stigma?
A
It refers to the negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship
17
Q
How was divorce stigmatised?
A
For example, churches tended to condemn divorce and often refused to conduct marriage services involving divorcees
18
Q
What do Mitchell and Goody 1997 note?
A
Note that an important change since the 1960s has been the rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce
19
Q
What happens as stigma declines?
A
Divorce becomes more socially acceptable and so couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their marital problems
20
Q
What in turn happens when divorce becomes more common?
A
It begins to ‘normalise’ and so reduces more of the stigma attached to it, today it is seen as a misfortune, rather tan shameful
21
Q
What does secularisation mean?
A
It refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society
22
Q
What is an example of secularisation?
A
Church attendance rates continue to decline, which is a reason why many sociologists argue that religious institutions are losing their influence and society is becoming more secular
23
Q
What happens as a result of secularisation?
A
The traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about personal matters eg whether or not to file for divorce
24
Q
How have changes in the church also contributed to rising divorce rates?
A
Many churches have begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees, maybe as they fear losing credibility with large sections of the public and with their own members
25
What does Fletcher 1966 argue?
Argues that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause of rising divorce rates as higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage
26
What is the ideology of romantic love?
An idea that has become dominant over the last couple of centuries which is the belief that marriage should be based solely on love, and that for each individual there is a 'Mr/Mrs Right'
27
How can the ideology of romantic love cause a higher divorce rate?
It follows the idea that if love dies, there is no longer any justification for remaining married and every reason to divorce so as to be able to renew the search for one's true soulmate
28
What was marriage based on in the past?
Individuals often had little choice in who they married, and at a time when the family was also a unit of production, marriages were often contracted largely for economic reasons or out of duty to one's family
29
What was a result of marriages for economic reasons?
Individuals were unlikely to have the high expectations about marriage as a romantic union of two souls that many couples have today, so entering with lower expectations means they were less likely to be dissatisfied by the absence of romance
30
What do Allan and Crow 2001 say?
‘Love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the cornerstones of marriage. The absence of these feelings is itself justification for ending the relationship’
31
Despite todays higher divorce rates, wha do functionalists point out?
The continuing popularity of marriage. Most adults marry, and the high rate of re-marriage after divorce shows that although divorcees may have become dissatisfied with a particular partner, they have not rejected marriage as an institution
32
How do feminists criticise the functionalist view?
They argue it is too rosy a view and that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this-although they offer an explanation, they fail to explain why women are the ones that seek divorce more often
33
What is a reason for why women have an increased willingness to seek divorce?
Improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependent on their husband and therefore freer to end an unsatisfactory marriage
34
What are examples of women's increased financial independence?
Much more likely to be in paid work (53% in 1971, then 67% in 2013), women still earn less but equal pay and anti discrimination laws narrow the pay gap, girls have greater success in education which helps, and the availability of welfare benefits mean women no longer have to remain financially dependent on husbands
35
What do all these developments for women mean?
Women are able to support themselves after divorce which means it is a viable option for them
36
What view do Allan and Crow put forward?
Argue that marriage is less embedded within the economic system now-fewer family firms and family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not so dependent on each other economically now
37
What is the feminist explanation to higher divorce rates?
Married women today have a dual burden of paid work and domestic work, which has created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives, leading to higher divorce rates
38
What does Hochschild 1997 argue?
Argues that for many women, the home compares unfavourable to work as at work they feel valued, but at home, men’s continuing resistance to relieve the dual burden/triple shift is a source of frustration that makes the marriage unstable
39
What does Wendy Sigle-Rushtion 2007 argue?
Mothers who have a dual burden of paid work and domestic work are more likely to divorce than non-working mothers in marriages with a traditional division of labour
40
How do Cooke and Gash 2010 counteract Wendy Sigle-Rushton?
They found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce, and argue this is because working has now become the accepted norm for married women
41
What does Bernard 1976 (radical feminist) observe?
-Many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage and so the rising divorce rate and the fact that most petitions come from women, is evidence of their growing acceptance of feminist ideas (more conscious of patriarchal oppression/more confident to reject it)
42
What do Beck and Giddens 1992 argue?
In modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the dame partner for life, lose their hold over individuals
43
What happens as a result of less values on traditional norms?
Each individual becomes free to pursue their own self interest-this is the individualisation thesis
44
What happens as a result of the individualisation thesis?
Relationships are more fragile as individuals are less willing to remain with the same partner if the relationship fails to bring personal fulfilment
45
What does Giddens say that people seek today?
The pure relationship, which is one that exists solely to satisfy each partners' needs and not out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of children-this results in higher divorce rates
46
What happens at the same time as rising divorce rates normalise divorce?
It further strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely to provide personal fulfilment
47
How else does modern society encourage individualism?
Eg women as well as men are now expected to work and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions. This can cause conflicts of interest between spouses and contribute to marital breakdown
48
What do some sociologists also argue that modernity encourages?
People to adopt a neoliberal, consumerist identity based on the idea of freedom to follow one's own self interest. This pursuit of self-interest is likely to pull spouses apart
49
How does the new right see high divorce rates?
Undesirable as it undermines marriage and traditional nuclear family that is vital to social stability. It creates a growing underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state and leaves boys without adult male role model they need. This also results in poorer health and educational outcomes for children
50
How do feminists see high divorce rates?
As desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family
51
How do postmodernists and the individualisation thesis see high divorce rates?
As showing that individuals now have freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs-a major cause of greater family diversity
52
How do functionalists see high divorce rates?
It isn't necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution, it is the result of people's higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of re-marriage shows people's continuing commitment to the idea of marriage
53
How do interactionists see high divorce rates?
They aim to understand what divorce means to the individual eg Morgan 1996 argues that we can't generalise about the meaning of divorce, because every individual's interpretation of it is different
54
How do the personal life perspective see high divorce rates?
They accept that divorce can cause problems, such as financial difficulties and lack of daily contact between children and non-resident parents, however (Smart 2011) divorce is normalised and family life can adapt to it rather than disintegrating, divorce is a transition amongst others in the life course rather than a major social problem
55
What are some of the important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years?
Marriage rates at lowest since 1920s (2012 had less than half the marriages of 1970), more re-marriages (in 2012, 1/3 marriages were re-marriages for both partners), people are marrying later (average age of first marriage rose by 7 years from 1971 and 2012) and couples are less likely to marry in a church (in 1981, 60% were religious ceremonies but in 2012 it was 30%
56
What are different reasons for changing patterns of first marriage?
Changing attitudes to marriage, secularisation, declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage, changes in position of women, and fear of divorce
57
What are changing attitudes to marriage?
Less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. Now a widespread belief that the quality of a couple's relationship is more important than its legal status. The norm that everyone should marry has greatly weakened
58
How does secularisation affect marriage rates?
Churches are in favour of marriage but as their influence declines, people feel freer to choose not to marry (3% of young people with no religion married compared to 17% with a religion)
59
How does declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage affect marriage rates?
Cohabitation, remaining single, and having children outside of marriage are all widely regarded as acceptable, so pregnancy no longer automatically leads to a 'shotgun wedding' (in 1989 70% believed couples that wanted children should marry but in 2012 it was only 42%)
60
How do changes in the position of women affect marriage rates?
They have better educational and career prospects and so many women are now less economically dependent on men, giving them greater freedom not to marry. The feminist view that marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution may also dissuade women from marrying
61
How has the fear of divorce affected marriage rates?
With the rising divorce rate, some may be put off marrying because they see the increased likelihood of marriage ending in divorce
62
Apart from first marriages, what other patterns have changed?
Remarriages, age on marrying and church weddings
63
How have remarriages changed?
Increase due to increased divorce
64
How has age of marriage changed?
Age rising as young people postpone marriage in order to spend longer in full-time education, and to maybe get a career first, also more couples cohabit first
65
How have church weddings changed?
Couples nowadays are less likely to marry in a church due to secularisation (it has less relevance) and many churches refuse to marry divorcees
66
What is cohabitation?
It involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together
67
How have patterns of cohabitation changed?
It has increased, cohabiting couples with children is a fast growing family type, 1 in 8 adults are cohabiting which is double the number in 1996, about 1/5 of those cohabiting are 'serial cohabitants' who have had one or more previous cohabitations
68
What are reasons for the increase in cohabitation?
Result of decline in stigma attached to sex outside of marriage (44% in 1989 believed it was ok, compared to 65% in 2012), young are more likely to accept cohabitation, increased career opportunities for women mean they have less need for financial security from marriage so are freer to cohabit, and also due to secularisation
69
What is the relationship between cohabitation and marriage?
Although cohabitation is increasing as marriage decreases, the relationship between the two isn't clear cut, eg for some, cohabitation is a step towards marriage but for others it's a permanent alternative
70
What does Chester argue?
Argues that for most people, cohabitation is part of the process of getting married
71
What did Coast 2006 find?
75% of cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other
72
What are the different views of what cohabitation is?
A trial marriage and so will marry if it goes well or will marry if they have children. Also some may see cohabitation as a temporary phase before marriage while awaiting a divorce. Others see it as permanent
73
What does Bejin 1985 argue?
Argues that cohabitation among some young people represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship than conventional patriarchal marriage
74
What did Shelton and John 1993 find?
Found that women who cohabit do less housework than their married counterparts
75
What does Stonewall 2012 estimate?
About 5-7% of the adult population today have same-sex relationships, it is impossible to judge whether this represents an increase because in the past, stigma and illegality meant those relationships were most likely to be hidden
76
What is evidence of increased social acceptance of same-sex relationships?
Decriminalisation and equalisation. Also opinion polls show more tolerance of homosexuality, and social policy now treats all couples more equally
77
What is an example of how social policy now treats all couples more equally?
Since 2002, cohabiting couples had the same adoption rights as married couples. In 2004 the Civil Partnership Act gave same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property. Since 2014, same sex couples have been able to marry
78
What does Weeks 1999 argue?
Argues that increased social acceptance may explain a trend towards same sex cohabitation and stable relationships that resemble those found among homosexuals
79
What does Weeks say about chosen families?
Gay individuals create families based on the idea of 'friendship as kinship' where friendships become a type of kinship network (chosen families that offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families)
80
How does Weston 1992 describe same sex cohabitation?
Describes same-sex cohabitation as ‘quasi-marriage’ and notes that many gay couples now decide to cohabit as stable partners, which contrasts with gay life style in 1970s which largely rejected monogamy and family life in favour of casual relationships
81
What do Allan and Crow argue?
Due to the absence of a legal framework until recently, same sex partners had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples, which may have made them more flexible and less stable than heterosexual relationships
82
What does Einasdottir 2011 note?
While many gay and lesbian individual welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised, others fear that it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships-wish their relationships to be different from heterosexual relationship norms
83
What are statistics for one-person households?
Big increase, in 2012 almost 3 in 10 households contained only one person (3 times more than in 1961). 40% are over 65 year olds (pensioner one person households have doubled since 1961-non-pensioners has tripled) Men under 65 were the group most likely to live alone. By 2033 over 30% of the adult population will be single (unpartnered and never married)
84
What are reasons for increased one-person households?
Increase in separation and divorce, especially among men under 65 because following divorce, children are likely to live with their mother and the father is more likely to move out. Also decline in marriage and marrying later means people are single for longer (amount of single adults has risen by half by 1971)
85
What is creative singlehood?
The deliberate choice to live alone and may be a reason for many people living alone because a growing number of people opt for creative singlehood
86
What is often assumed about those who live alone?
That they don't have a partner, either from choice or not
87
What Duncan and Phillips find for the British Social Attitudes Survey 2013?
Found that about 1 in 10 adults are ‘living apart together’
88
What is 'living apart together'?
In a significant relationship relationship, but not married or cohabiting-this is true for about half of all people classified as single, suggesting this may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships and 'families of choice'
89
What reasons did Duncan and Phillips find for LAT?
Some couldn't afford to live together, and a minority actively chose to live apart eg because they wanted to keep their own home, or due to previous trouble relationship, or because they thought it was too early to cohabit
90
What is the public attitude towards LAT?
Favourable. A majority believe that couples don't need to live together to have a strong relationship. Also 20% see LAT as their 'ideal relationship'
91
What do Duncan and Phillips conclude about LAT?
It is no longer seen as abnormal, but it probably doesn't amount to a rejection of more traditional relationship
92
What are the changes in childbearing?
Nearly half children are born outside marriage (more than double in 1986) but most are jointly registered by both parents eg when cohabiting. Women have children later (between 1971 and 2012, average age at birth of first child rose by four years). Women have fewer children (2.95 in 1964 to 1.63 in 2001) And more women are remaining childless (one quarter born in 1973 will be childless at 45)
93
What are reasons for the changes in childbearing?
Reasons for increase in births outside marriage are due to declining stigma and increased cohabitation (only 28% of 25-34 year olds think marriage should be before parenthood). Women have children later, less children and remain childless, reflecting the fact that women now have more options than just motherhood
94
What are the statistics for lone parent families?
They now make up 22% of all families with children. 1 in 4 live in a LPF. 90% of them are headed by women. Until 1990s it was mainly divorced women, then it became mainly single women. Children in these families are twice as likely to be in poverty
95
Why has the number of lone parent families risen?
Due to increase in divorce and separation. Also more recently the increase in number of never-married women having children. Linked to decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage
96
How were lone parent families created in the past?
Through the death of a parent, though this is no longer very significant
97
Why are lone parents generally female headed?
Widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an expressive/nurturing role. Divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers. Men may be less willing to give up work for childcare. Some mothers are single by choice
98
What is single by choice?
Women may not wish to cohabit or marry, or may want to limit the fathers involvement with the child
99
What did Renvoize 1985 find?
Professional women were able to support their child without the father’s involvement
100
What did Cashmore 1985 find?
Some working class mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often due to abuse
101
What Murray (New Right) 1984 note?
Sees the growth of lone parent families as resulting from an over-generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children
102
What does Murray argue of the welfare state?
It has created a 'perverse incentive'. It rewards irresponsible behaviour such as having children without being able to provide for them. It becomes a 'dependency culture' in which people assume that the state will support them and their children
103
What does Murray say the solution is?
To abolish welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside marriage
104
What do critics of the New Right argue?
Welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are much more likely to be in poverty as they lack affordable childcare, preventing women from working (60% unemployed, double as for mothers with partners). Inadequate benefits. Most lone parents are women who generally earn less. Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially is they are providing for a second family
105
What are step family statistics?
Account for over 10% of families with dependent children. in 85% at least one child is from the mothers previous relationship and in 11% there's one from the father, in 4% there's one from both.
106
what did Ferri and Smith 1998 find?
Stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects, and that the involvement of stepparents in childcare and childbearing is a positive one, however they are at greater risk of poverty
107
What did Allan and Crow 2001 find?
Stepfamilies may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the non-resident parent can cause tensions
108
What did McCarthy et al 2003 conclude?
There is diversity among step families so it shouldn’t be a plural, it should be ‘the stepfamily’. Some have few tensions, while for those that do, the tensions are not so different from those in ‘intact’ families
109
What are reasons for the patterns in the step family?
Formed when lone parents form new partnerships so increase in LPF due to increase in divorce and separation increase these family types. More children are from women's previous relationship as children are more likely to stay with the mother in separations. Stepparents are more likely to be in poverty as there are often more children and fathers may have to support children from previous relationships. Some of their tensions may be result of lack of clear social norms of how individuals should be in these families
110
How has immigration caused ethnic diversity in Britain?
In 2011, 86% of the UK population were white. 14% were an ethnic minority, mainly Asian and Asian British (7.5%). Black and Black British (3.3%) and Mixed (2.2%)
111
What happened as a cause of greater ethnic diversity?
It has contributed to changing family patterns in the UK
112
What type of family is a high proportion of Black Caribbean and Black African families?
Lone parent families (in 2012 over half of families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone parent compared to only 1 in 9 in Asian families and under a quarter of the whole population)
113
What has the high rate of female headed lone parent black families sometimes been seen as evidence of?
Family disorganisation that can be traced back to slavery, or more recently, the high rates of unemployment among black males
114
How did slavery cause this disorganisation?
When couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. It is argued that this established a pattern of family life that persists today
115
How do high rates of unemployment among black males lead to this disorganisation?
Black men are less able to provide for their family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown
116
What does Mirza 1997 argue?
Higher rates of lone parent families among blacks isn’t the result of disorganisation, but rather reflects high value that black women place on independence
117
What does Reynolds 2010 argue?
The statistics are misleading, in that many apparently 'lone' parents are in fact in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships
118
How are Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households generally different from other ethnic groups?
Tend to be larger, at 4.4, 4.3 and 3 persons per household compared to 2.4 for Black Caribbean and White British households
119
Who makes up these larger households?
They sometimes contain three generations, but most are nuclear rather than extended
120
What are these larger household sizes a result of?
The younger age profile of British Asians, since a higher proportion are in the childbearing age groups compared with the population as a whole
121
What are larger asian households able to reflect to some extent?
The value placed on the extended family in asian cultures. However practical considerations such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also important
122
What did Ballard 1982 find?
Extended family ties provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950s and 1960s
123
What happened in this early period of migration and how did it change?
Houses were often shared by extended families, later though most Asian households became nuclear with relatives nearby but with frequent visiting and kinship networks continuing as a source of support
124
Today, who are most likely to live in extended family units?
Sikhs, Muslims and Hindues
125
What did Parson note about the extended family?
Pre industrialisation, it was the dominant family type
126
What did Charles 2008 find?
Study of Swansea found that the classic three generation family all living under one roof, is now all but extinct, the only significant exceptions being among the Bangladeshi community
127
What does Willmott 1988 argue about extended family?
It hasn't entirely disappeared. It continues to exist as a 'dispersed extended family' where relatives are geographically separated but maintain in frequent contact through visits and phone calls
128
What did Chamberlain 1999 find?
Study of Caribbean families in Britain found despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support, and are described as ‘multiple nuclear families’
129
What did Bells 1968 earlier research in Swansea find?
Found that both working class and middle class families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on them for support (in middle class there was more financial help from father to son, and in working class families had more frequent contact and more domestic help from mothers to daughters)
130
What does Bells research show the importance of?
The bean pole family, which is a particular type of extended family
131
What is the bean pole family?
Extended vertically through three or more generations (grandparents, parents, children) but not extended horizontally (aunts, uncles, cousins)
132
How does Charles show the bean pole family?
Found the same high level of contact between mothers and adult daughters that Bell had found in the 1960s, however in the case of brothers/sisters, there had been a sharp decline in support and contact
133
What are two demographic changes that may have caused the bean pole family?
Increased life expectancy (so more surviving grandparents and great grandparents), and smaller family sizes (fewer siblings so fewer horizontal family members)
134
What do Finch and Mason argue about the family today?
Over 90% of people had given or received financial help, and about half had cared for a sick relative. Despite the rise of the beanpole family, many people still feel a sense of obligation to help their wider extended kin
135
How is there diversity in obligations to relatives?
Finch and Mason found that more is expected of females than males, and Cheal argues that, when it comes to help with household tasks there is a systematic set of rules for deciding who has the greatest obligation to assist (spouse, daughter, daughter-in-law, son, relatives, non-relatives)
136
What is an example of the systematic rules set to decide who has obligation to assist?
Cheal notes that where personal care for an elderly woman is needed, a daughter or daughter-in-law is preferred if the husband is not available. Sons are rarely chosen as caregivers for an elderly woman. On the other hand, daughters are rarely chosen as appropriate people to provide money
137
What did Mason find about daughters and obligations to relatives?
Daughters are more likely to take responsibility for care of elderly relatives but not all daughters in family necessarily play an equal part. Much depends on the history of the relationship. the particular obligations women feel towards their relatives, and what other responsibilities they have that would given them 'legitimate excuses' not to be involved
138
What principle did Finch and Mason find to be important when looking at obligations to relatives?
The principle of reciprocity or balance is important-people felt that help received should be returned to avoid any feelings of indebtedness
139
What is an overall summary of the extended family today?
Overall, evidence suggests the extended family continues to play an important role for many people today, providing both practical and emotional support when called upon. However, this is very different from Parsons' classic extended family, whose members lived and worked together, and who were bound by strong mutual obligations. Nevertheless, some sense of obligation does remain, at least to some kin and as a last resort in times of crisis
