Slide set 1 Flashcards
The difference between physiology and anatomy
Physiology-the study of the normal functioning of an organism( the process)
Anatomy-the study of the structure
Levels of organisation
Molecules-> cells->tissues->organ-> organ system
What is gross anatomy
Study of the body and its parts using only naked eye
What is microanatomy
Tissue and cells ( histology and cytology
Overview how does the heart beat
Electrical conduction system of the heart
Specialized cells in regions of the heart that initiate (autorhythmic cells), conduction of electrical signals, muscle cells (myocytes) that contract
-Branching interactions propagate action potentials
Pacemaker activity with slow depolarization for action potential
Mechanism of cardiac muscle action potential
Na entry, change of charge
Ca entry-the plateau
K+ loss- depolarization
What are twy control systems that communicate well with each other
Nervous
Endocrine
What is cell
Smallest and most numerous units that make up tissues
What is a mammalian cell
Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a membrane
What makes cell differentiate
Control gene expression and unique cell-specific transcriptosomes and proteomes
What is essential for cell differentiation
cell-cell communication
Growth factors
ECM
Cell locating in differentiating embryo
Three layers that rise from blastocyst
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ecroderm
What rise from endoderm
lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid and bladder, lungs, urogenital tract
What rise from mesoderm
circulatory system, excretory system, muscles, connective tissue, organs
bones
heart
What rise from ectoderm
Integument (skin), lens of the eye and nervous system
What is a tissue
An organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function
Four major tissue types
Epethilial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Characteristics of epethilial tissues
One or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM, found on free surface
Functions of epethilial tissue
Covers and protect the body surface (sheets)
Lines body cavities
Movement of substances (secretory)
Where to find epethilial tissue
Skin, lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary, glands of the body
Characteristics of connective tissue
Few cells surrounded by lots of ECM
Functions of connective tissue
Connect anchors and supports body structures, transport. Provides structural and metabolic support
Where is connective tissue found
Bone, tendons, blood, fat
ECM, its composition and variation
In the extracellular matrix, collagen fibers are interwoven with a class of carbohydrate-bearing proteoglycans
If it is calcified, it can form bone or teeth
Specialized forms of ECM comprise tendons, cartilage
General connective tissue is
Either loose, or dense, depending on the arrangement of the fibres
What is the proteins of cells in the matrix
Glycoproteins
Fibrous proteins
Glycosoaminoglycans
Characteristic of muscle
Long fiberlike cells
Functions of muscle cells and where they are found
F: can contract and generate force
Where its found: heart skeletal muscle, surrounding hollow organs such as bladder and uterus
Nervous tissue : characteristics, function, where its found
Cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses
Functions: initiate and transmit electrical impulses
Where its found: brain, spinal cord and nerves
Organ is made up of
Different kinds of tissues to perform a special function
What kind of tissues are found in the stomach?
Smooth muscle Nervous tissue Loose connective tissue Epithelium Connective tissue
What is homeostasis and who invented this term
Physiological attempt to correct when physiological set point challenged
If the parameters are not maintained->disease or death
Walter B. Cannon
Basic components if homeostatic mechanism
Sensor
Integrating, or control center
Effector mechanism
Feedback
What is a sensor
Detects and reacts to any changes from normal set point
What is integrating center
Information is analyzed and if needed, a specific action is initiated
What is effector mechanism
Brings about the change to return to the set point
What is feedback
Process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator
Characterize negative feedback control systems
Inhibitory
Act to reset physiological variables
Responsible for maintaining homeostasis
More common than positive feedbacks
Who will be a sensor, integrator and effector when it is cold
Skin->sensor
Integrator->hypothalamus
Effector->muscles
Describe positive feedback systems
Stimulatory
Amplify or reinforce the change that is occuring
Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis
Bring specific body function to swift completion
Example of positive feedback
Oxytocin and labor
Difference between intracellular and intrinsic control
Intracellular- operates within cells/ genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes
Instrinsic control (autoregulation)- regulation within tissues or organs/ may involve chemical signals
Describe extrinsic control (homeostasis)
- Regulation from organ to organ
- May involve nerve signals
- May involve endocrine signals (hormones)
Teleological approach vs mechanistic approach
Teleological-why red blood cells transport oxygen-> because cells need it
Mechanistic approach->oxygen bounds to hemoglobin-> how it is done
Two types of fluids
extracellular
Intercellular
What are concentrations of ions in ECF and ICF
ECF-More Na, Cl, little K
ICF- More K, little Na, Cl
What is pH inside lysosome
4.5-5
3 cavities of our body
Cranial cavity
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by
Cerebrospinal fluid
The extracellular fluid subdivides into
Plasma and interstitial fluid
Where is mucous membrane
Peritoneal membrane
Pericardial membrane
Pleural membrane
Mucous-the mouth and vagina
Peritoneal membrane-lines the inside of the abdomen
Pleural membrane-covers the surface of the lungs
Pericardial membrane-surrounds the heart
Two synonyms to cell membrane
Plasma membrane
Plasmalemma
Basic functions of the cell membrane
Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
Communication between the cell and its environment
Structural support
What is the thickness of cell membrane
8 nanometers
Three main types of lipids
Phospholipids
Sphingolipids
Cholesterol
Three arrangements of fatty acids in water
Micells
Liposomes
Cell membrane
Types of proteins that can be found in the membrane
Integral:transmembrane and lipid-anchored Peripheral proteins ( anchor cytoskeleton to the membrane)
What is glycocalyx
A protective layer of CHO attached to proteins or lipids
Lipid drafts are made of
Sphingolipids
Cell membrane consists of
CHO, proteins, Lipids/Sphingolipids, cholesterol
What is the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins
Structural stability
Cell recognition
Immune response
Cytoplasm consists of
Cytosol inclusions
Protein fibers or cytoskeleton
Organelles
Difference between microvilli, microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments
Microvilli increase cell surface area, they are supported ny microfillaments
Microtubules -the largest cytoskeleton fiber
Intermediate filaments-Include myosin and keratine
Membrane organelles
Mitochondria ER Golgi Lysosomes Peroxisomes
Cytoplasmic inclusions
Lipid drplets
Glycogen granules
Ribosomes
Protein fibers of the cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Cilia
Flagella
What is the role of microtubules
Made from microtubules and direct DNA movement during cell division
The role of lysosomes
Small, spherical storage vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes
Role of peroxisomes
Contain enzymes that break down long FAs and potentially toxic foreign molecules
Golgi apparatus consist of
Cisternae
Role of smooth ER and rough ER
Rough ER- synthesis of proteins
Smooth ER-synthesize o lipids and in some cells concentrates and stores calcium ions
Structure of nucleus
Surrounded by a double-membrane nuclear envelope, inside is nucleoli, The outer membrane of nuclear envelope is connected to ER
Three families of cytoplasmic fibers
Actin, also called microfilaments
Intermediate filaments (like keratin and neurofilament)
Microtubules, made up from tubulin
Centrosome has how many centrioles
2
Cilia are found in what type of cells
Upper respiratory tract
Female reproductive system
Structure of cilia
9 pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair
They terminate at the basal body
Dynein helps microtubules to slide past each other
Flagella: the difference from cilia and where it is found
Flagella is longer
Sperm
How many microtubules in centriole
27-> nine triplets
5 functions of cytoskeleton
Cell shape Internal organization Intracellular transport Assembly of cells into tissues Movement
Three groups of motor proteins and role of each
Myosins-bind to actin fibers and role muscle contraction
Kinesins
Dyneins- together they assist the movement of vesicles along microtubules
Mitochondria has its own
DNA
What does smooth ER of liver and kidney cells do
Detoxifies/ inactivates drugs
How lysosomes are activated
When lysosomes first pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus, their interior pH is about the same as that of the cytosol,
7.0–7.3. The enzymes are inactive at this pH. However, as the lysosome sits in the cytoplasm, it accumulates
H+ in a process that uses energy. Increasing concentrations
of H+ decrease the pH inside the vesicle to 4.8–5.0, and the enzymes
are activated
What is Tay-Sachs disease
Infants have defective lysosomes-> no glycolipids break down->accumulation of glycolipids in nerve cells-> nervous system dysfunction-> blindness and loss of coordination
What enzyme do peroxisome have and what does it do
Catalase
Converts h2o2 to water and oxygen
Communication between the nucleus and cytosol occurs through and what can be transported
The nuclear pore complex. Ions and small molecules move freely, proteins and RNA requires energy
What is the matrix and cells secreting ECM
Matrix-loose connective tissue
Cells-fibroblasts
What type of tissue has a little and extensive ECM
Nerve and muscles- little matrix Connective tissues (cartilage, bone, blood)- extensive ECM
3 types of stronger cell junctions
Communicating (gap junctions)
Occluding (tight junctions)
Anchoring
What is the role of gap junctions, what it is made up froom
They allow direct and rapid cell-to-cell communication
through cytoplasmic bridges between adjoining
cells.Gap junctions allow both chemical and electrical signals
to pass rapidly from one cell to the next
Made up from connexins
Role of tight junctions,
restrict the
movement of material between the cells they link.
In tight junctions, the cell membranes of adjacent cells partly
fuse together and
occludins, thereby making a barrier.
Heart and gap junctions
Heart uses gap junctions to so that a single nerve impulse can travel to and stimulate heart to contract all at once
Where tight junctions are important
Intestinal epithelium so that enzymes can not reach underlying stroma layer
Anchoring junction example and usage
Cells’ attachment to each other or to the ECM. For example: belt desmosome or spot desmosome
Fibers on the outer surface of each desmosome interlock with each other (VELCRO); anchored internally by intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
Difference between spot desmosomes and belt desmosomes
Spot desmosomes connect adjacent membranes at different spots
Belt desmosomes encircle the entire cell like a collar
What is the role of epethilia
-Line exposed surfaces
-Line internal passageways
-Any substance that enters or leaves the internal environment
of the body must cross an epithelium.
Structure of epethilia
one or
more layers of cells connected to one another, with a thin layer
of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and
their underlying tissues .This matrix layer, called the
basal lamina or basement
membrane, is composed of a network of collagen and laminin
filaments embedded in proteoglycans.. The protein filaments hold
the epithelial cells to the underlying cell layers, just as cell junctions
hold the individual cells in the epithelium to one another
Types of epethelium
Exchange Protective Secretory Transported Ciliated
Describe exchange epthilium
The exchange epithelia are composed of
very thin, flattened cells that allow gases (CO2 and O2) to pass
rapidly across the epithelium. In capillaries, gaps or pores in the epithelium also
allow molecules smaller than proteins to pass between two adjacent
epithelial cells, making this a leaky epithelium (This type of epithelium lines the
blood vessels and the lungs,
How do histologist classify exchange epehilium
Simple squamous. The one that covering heart and blood vessels is also called endothelium
Role of transport epithelia
The transporting epithelia actively
and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous materials,
such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments.
These epithelia line the hollow tubes of the digestive
system and the kidney, where lumens open into the external
environment
How can transport epithilia can be identified
Simple epethilia, cuboidal or columnar
Has microvilli
Tight to very tight jucntions
have numerous mitochondria
Role of ciliated epthilia
nontransporting tissues
that line the respiratory system and parts of the female reproductive
tract. The surface of the tissue facing the lumen is covered
with cilia that beat in a coordinated, rhythmic fashion, moving
fluid and particles across the surface of the tissue.
Simple columnar or cuboidal
Protective epithelia:role, of what cells it is composed of, how it can be hardened, life span
Prevent the exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to mechanical or chemical stresses.
Stratified epethilia
Can be strengthened with keratin
Short life span
Secretory epethilia: role, types
Can be exocrine or endocrine
To produce and secrete substances
Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands
Exocrine: surface of the skin, airways in the lung, lumen of the intestine. usually have ducts to transport the hormone
Endocrine: ductless, produce hormones into the blood
What are goblet cells
Single exocrine cells that produce mucus
Distinguishing characteristic of connective tissue
Extensive ECM
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Ground substance is gel,more ground than fibers and cells, has collagen, elastic, reticular and random and main cell type is fibroblast
Loose connective tissue: skin, around blood vessels and organs, under epithilia
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Ground substance:more fibers than ground, mostly collagen and arrangement is random, main cell type is fibroblast
Denses, irregular connective tissue
Muscle and nerve sheaths
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
More fibers than ground, collagen, arrangement is parallel, main cell types is fibroblast
Dense, regular connective tissue
Tendons and ligaments
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Very little ground substance, no arrangement or fiber type, main cell type is brown fat and white fat
Adipose
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Aqueous, no arrangement or ground substance, main cell type is blood cells
In blood and lymph vessels
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Firm but flexible; hyaluronic acid, fiber type-collagen, main cells types-chondroblasts
Cartilage
Joint surface, spine, ear, nose, larynx
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Rigid due to calcium salts, fiber type:collagen, main cell types osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bones
Difference in arrangement between white blood cells and brown cells
White-single droplet
Brown-Multiple
Three types of fixed cells in connective tissue
Macrophages
Adipocytes
Fibroblasts
Matrix of connective tissue can bee subdivided into 2 groups
Grouns substance
Protein fibers
4 types of protein fibers
Fibronectin
Fibrilin
Elastin
Collagen
3 types of muscle tissue
Cardiac
Smooth
Skeletal
2 types of cells in neural tissue
Neurons and glial cells
How do distinguish between skeletal and cardiac muscles
Cardiac- have intercalated disks, nucleus inside the cells , not as flat
2 types of cell connections in intercalated disks
Desmosomes and gap junctions
As cells mature, they ___
Differentiate
What is the name of cells in embryo that are not yet differentiated
Totipotent-has the capacity to form an entire organism.
Another name for stem cells in the organism
Pluripotent
Why stem cells hold a great promise for medical therapies
1) undifferentiated cells-> can give rise to almost all cell type
2) highly proliferative-> large quantities can be produced for medical purposes
Can be used for damage sin spinal cord, CVD, Alzheimer’s
Alternative source of stem cells
Adult bone marrow, testis stem cells
What is gene recipe for stem cell from fibroblasts
Oct3/4, Sox2,c-Myc and Klf4-. forced expression
What are self markers
Molecules on the surface f human cells that are unique to an individual, thus identifying the cell as self to the immune system
What is self-tolerance
The ability of our immune system to attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare our own normal cells
Non-self markers are
Molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells-> non-self markers
Protein channels are used for
Controlled transport of water soluble molecules
How is the process of adjusting urine levels work
The initial response to cellular dehydration is release of ADH ADH acts on the distal tubule of the kidney to increase water permeability by inserting aquaporin channels into cell membranes Water moves out of the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney by osmosis through these channels – decreasing osmolarity Overall effect is an increased water reabsorption by the kidney and a decrease in urine flow
membrane receptor function
When bound by a ligand triggers an intracellular signaling cascade that will alter intracellular activities
Integral proteins role
binds other
integral membrane proteins
to form cell-cell connections
binds ECM to give
structure to tissues
Involved in wound healing,
angiogenesis, development,
embryo attachment, cancer
invasion
Composition of ribosomes
Each ribosome is a non-membranous structure
made of two pieces, a large subunit and a small
subunit; each subunit is composed of rRNA
What happens in Parkinson disease
the proteosome system fails and
improperly folded proteins kill nerve cells in the brain that
regulate muscle tension
80
Types of chromation
oHfefterochromatingenes
off
Euchromatin-genes
on
Mechanism of muscle contraction
The myosin heads bend with a strong force when they bind the actin filaments • This pulls the thin filaments past them • Each head then release and this pulls again • This pulling by the myosin heads and the sliding of the actin is the essential movement of the muscle contraction
How can you get stem cells
When zygote is formed
OR
Enucleated oocyte (egg with removed nucelus), where the nucleus of the host is put->zygote-> cell division->stem cells
