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Mam Physiology > Slide set 1 > Flashcards

Slide set 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The difference between physiology and anatomy

A

Physiology-the study of the normal functioning of an organism( the process)

Anatomy-the study of the structure

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2
Q

Levels of organisation

A

Molecules-> cells->tissues->organ-> organ system

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3
Q

What is gross anatomy

A

Study of the body and its parts using only naked eye

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4
Q

What is microanatomy

A

Tissue and cells ( histology and cytology

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5
Q

Overview how does the heart beat

A

Electrical conduction system of the heart

Specialized cells in regions of the heart that initiate (autorhythmic cells), conduction of electrical signals, muscle cells (myocytes) that contract

-Branching interactions propagate action potentials

Pacemaker activity with slow depolarization for action potential

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6
Q

Mechanism of cardiac muscle action potential

A

Na entry, change of charge
Ca entry-the plateau
K+ loss- depolarization

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7
Q

What are twy control systems that communicate well with each other

A

Nervous

Endocrine

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8
Q

What is cell

A

Smallest and most numerous units that make up tissues

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9
Q

What is a mammalian cell

A

Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a membrane

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10
Q

What makes cell differentiate

A

Control gene expression and unique cell-specific transcriptosomes and proteomes

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11
Q

What is essential for cell differentiation

A

cell-cell communication
Growth factors
ECM
Cell locating in differentiating embryo

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12
Q

Three layers that rise from blastocyst

A

Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ecroderm

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13
Q

What rise from endoderm

A

lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid and bladder, lungs, urogenital tract

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14
Q

What rise from mesoderm

A

circulatory system, excretory system, muscles, connective tissue, organs
bones
heart

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15
Q

What rise from ectoderm

A

Integument (skin), lens of the eye and nervous system

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16
Q

What is a tissue

A

An organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function

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17
Q

Four major tissue types

A

Epethilial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous

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18
Q

Characteristics of epethilial tissues

A

One or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM, found on free surface

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19
Q

Functions of epethilial tissue

A

Covers and protect the body surface (sheets)

Lines body cavities

Movement of substances (secretory)

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20
Q

Where to find epethilial tissue

A

Skin, lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary, glands of the body

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21
Q

Characteristics of connective tissue

A

Few cells surrounded by lots of ECM

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22
Q

Functions of connective tissue

A

Connect anchors and supports body structures, transport. Provides structural and metabolic support

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23
Q

Where is connective tissue found

A

Bone, tendons, blood, fat

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24
Q

ECM, its composition and variation

A

In the extracellular matrix, collagen fibers are interwoven with a class of carbohydrate-bearing proteoglycans

If it is calcified, it can form bone or teeth

Specialized forms of ECM comprise tendons, cartilage

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25
Q

General connective tissue is

A

Either loose, or dense, depending on the arrangement of the fibres

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26
Q

What is the proteins of cells in the matrix

A

Glycoproteins
Fibrous proteins
Glycosoaminoglycans

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27
Q

Characteristic of muscle

A

Long fiberlike cells

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28
Q

Functions of muscle cells and where they are found

A

F: can contract and generate force

Where its found: heart skeletal muscle, surrounding hollow organs such as bladder and uterus

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29
Q

Nervous tissue : characteristics, function, where its found

A

Cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses

Functions: initiate and transmit electrical impulses
Where its found: brain, spinal cord and nerves

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30
Q

Organ is made up of

A

Different kinds of tissues to perform a special function

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31
Q

What kind of tissues are found in the stomach?

A 
Smooth muscle
Nervous tissue
Loose connective tissue
Epithelium
Connective tissue
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32
Q

What is homeostasis and who invented this term

A

Physiological attempt to correct when physiological set point challenged
If the parameters are not maintained->disease or death
Walter B. Cannon

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33
Q

Basic components if homeostatic mechanism

A

Sensor
Integrating, or control center

Effector mechanism

Feedback

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34
Q

What is a sensor

A

Detects and reacts to any changes from normal set point

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35
Q

What is integrating center

A

Information is analyzed and if needed, a specific action is initiated

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36
Q

What is effector mechanism

A

Brings about the change to return to the set point

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37
Q

What is feedback

A

Process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator

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38
Q

Characterize negative feedback control systems

A

Inhibitory
Act to reset physiological variables
Responsible for maintaining homeostasis

More common than positive feedbacks

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39
Q

Who will be a sensor, integrator and effector when it is cold

A

Skin->sensor
Integrator->hypothalamus
Effector->muscles

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40
Q

Describe positive feedback systems

A

Stimulatory
Amplify or reinforce the change that is occuring
Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis

Bring specific body function to swift completion

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41
Q

Example of positive feedback

A

Oxytocin and labor

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42
Q

Difference between intracellular and intrinsic control

A

Intracellular- operates within cells/ genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes

Instrinsic control (autoregulation)- regulation within tissues or organs/ may involve chemical signals

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43
Q

Describe extrinsic control (homeostasis)

A
  • Regulation from organ to organ
  • May involve nerve signals
  • May involve endocrine signals (hormones)
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44
Q

Teleological approach vs mechanistic approach

A

Teleological-why red blood cells transport oxygen-> because cells need it

Mechanistic approach->oxygen bounds to hemoglobin-> how it is done

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45
Q

Two types of fluids

A

extracellular

Intercellular

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46
Q

What are concentrations of ions in ECF and ICF

A

ECF-More Na, Cl, little K

ICF- More K, little Na, Cl

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47
Q

What is pH inside lysosome

A

4.5-5

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48
Q

3 cavities of our body

A

Cranial cavity
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity

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49
Q

The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

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50
Q

The extracellular fluid subdivides into

A

Plasma and interstitial fluid

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51
Q

Where is mucous membrane
Peritoneal membrane
Pericardial membrane
Pleural membrane

A

Mucous-the mouth and vagina
Peritoneal membrane-lines the inside of the abdomen
Pleural membrane-covers the surface of the lungs
Pericardial membrane-surrounds the heart

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52
Q

Two synonyms to cell membrane

A

Plasma membrane

Plasmalemma

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53
Q

Basic functions of the cell membrane

A

Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
Communication between the cell and its environment
Structural support

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54
Q

What is the thickness of cell membrane

A

8 nanometers

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55
Q

Three main types of lipids

A

Phospholipids
Sphingolipids
Cholesterol

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56
Q

Three arrangements of fatty acids in water

A

Micells
Liposomes
Cell membrane

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57
Q

Types of proteins that can be found in the membrane

A 
Integral:transmembrane and lipid-anchored
Peripheral proteins ( anchor cytoskeleton to the membrane)
58
Q

What is glycocalyx

A

A protective layer of CHO attached to proteins or lipids

59
Q

Lipid drafts are made of

A

Sphingolipids

60
Q

Cell membrane consists of

A

CHO, proteins, Lipids/Sphingolipids, cholesterol

61
Q

What is the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins

A

Structural stability
Cell recognition
Immune response

62
Q

Cytoplasm consists of

A

Cytosol inclusions
Protein fibers or cytoskeleton
Organelles

63
Q

Difference between microvilli, microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments

A

Microvilli increase cell surface area, they are supported ny microfillaments

Microtubules -the largest cytoskeleton fiber
Intermediate filaments-Include myosin and keratine

64
Q

Membrane organelles

A 
Mitochondria
ER
Golgi
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
65
Q

Cytoplasmic inclusions

A

Lipid drplets
Glycogen granules
Ribosomes

66
Q

Protein fibers of the cytoplasm

A

Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Cilia
Flagella

67
Q

What is the role of microtubules

A

Made from microtubules and direct DNA movement during cell division

68
Q

The role of lysosomes

A

Small, spherical storage vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes

69
Q

Role of peroxisomes

A

Contain enzymes that break down long FAs and potentially toxic foreign molecules

70
Q

Golgi apparatus consist of

A

Cisternae

71
Q

Role of smooth ER and rough ER

A

Rough ER- synthesis of proteins

Smooth ER-synthesize o lipids and in some cells concentrates and stores calcium ions

72
Q

Structure of nucleus

A

Surrounded by a double-membrane nuclear envelope, inside is nucleoli, The outer membrane of nuclear envelope is connected to ER

73
Q

Three families of cytoplasmic fibers

A

Actin, also called microfilaments
Intermediate filaments (like keratin and neurofilament)
Microtubules, made up from tubulin

74
Q

Centrosome has how many centrioles

A

2

75
Q

Cilia are found in what type of cells

A

Upper respiratory tract

Female reproductive system

76
Q

Structure of cilia

A

9 pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair
They terminate at the basal body
Dynein helps microtubules to slide past each other

77
Q

Flagella: the difference from cilia and where it is found

A

Flagella is longer

Sperm

78
Q

How many microtubules in centriole

A

27-> nine triplets

79
Q

5 functions of cytoskeleton

A 
Cell shape
Internal organization
Intracellular transport
Assembly of cells into tissues
Movement
80
Q

Three groups of motor proteins and role of each

A

Myosins-bind to actin fibers and role muscle contraction
Kinesins
Dyneins- together they assist the movement of vesicles along microtubules

81
Q

Mitochondria has its own

A

DNA

82
Q

What does smooth ER of liver and kidney cells do

A

Detoxifies/ inactivates drugs

83
Q

How lysosomes are activated

A

When lysosomes first pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus, their interior pH is about the same as that of the cytosol,
7.0–7.3. The enzymes are inactive at this pH. However, as the lysosome sits in the cytoplasm, it accumulates
H+ in a process that uses energy. Increasing concentrations
of H+ decrease the pH inside the vesicle to 4.8–5.0, and the enzymes
are activated

84
Q

What is Tay-Sachs disease

A

Infants have defective lysosomes-> no glycolipids break down->accumulation of glycolipids in nerve cells-> nervous system dysfunction-> blindness and loss of coordination

85
Q

What enzyme do peroxisome have and what does it do

A

Catalase

Converts h2o2 to water and oxygen

86
Q

Communication between the nucleus and cytosol occurs through and what can be transported

A

The nuclear pore complex. Ions and small molecules move freely, proteins and RNA requires energy

87
Q

What is the matrix and cells secreting ECM

A

Matrix-loose connective tissue

Cells-fibroblasts

88
Q

What type of tissue has a little and extensive ECM

A 
Nerve and muscles- little matrix
Connective tissues (cartilage, bone, blood)- extensive ECM
89
Q

3 types of stronger cell junctions

A

Communicating (gap junctions)
Occluding (tight junctions)
Anchoring

90
Q

What is the role of gap junctions, what it is made up froom

A

They allow direct and rapid cell-to-cell communication
through cytoplasmic bridges between adjoining
cells.Gap junctions allow both chemical and electrical signals
to pass rapidly from one cell to the next

Made up from connexins

91
Q

Role of tight junctions,

A

restrict the
movement of material between the cells they link.
In tight junctions, the cell membranes of adjacent cells partly
fuse together and
occludins, thereby making a barrier.

92
Q

Heart and gap junctions

A

Heart uses gap junctions to so that a single nerve impulse can travel to and stimulate heart to contract all at once

93
Q

Where tight junctions are important

A

Intestinal epithelium so that enzymes can not reach underlying stroma layer

94
Q

Anchoring junction example and usage

A

Cells’ attachment to each other or to the ECM. For example: belt desmosome or spot desmosome

Fibers on the outer surface of each desmosome interlock with each other (VELCRO); anchored internally by intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton

95
Q

Difference between spot desmosomes and belt desmosomes

A

Spot desmosomes connect adjacent membranes at different spots

Belt desmosomes encircle the entire cell like a collar

96
Q

What is the role of epethilia

A

-Line exposed surfaces
-Line internal passageways
-Any substance that enters or leaves the internal environment
of the body must cross an epithelium.

97
Q

Structure of epethilia

A

one or
more layers of cells connected to one another, with a thin layer
of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and
their underlying tissues .This matrix layer, called the
basal lamina or basement
membrane, is composed of a network of collagen and laminin
filaments embedded in proteoglycans.. The protein filaments hold
the epithelial cells to the underlying cell layers, just as cell junctions
hold the individual cells in the epithelium to one another

98
Q

Types of epethelium

A 
Exchange
Protective
Secretory
Transported
Ciliated
99
Q

Describe exchange epthilium

A

The exchange epithelia are composed of
very thin, flattened cells that allow gases (CO2 and O2) to pass
rapidly across the epithelium. In capillaries, gaps or pores in the epithelium also
allow molecules smaller than proteins to pass between two adjacent
epithelial cells, making this a leaky epithelium (This type of epithelium lines the
blood vessels and the lungs,

100
Q

How do histologist classify exchange epehilium

A

Simple squamous. The one that covering heart and blood vessels is also called endothelium

101
Q

Role of transport epithelia

A

The transporting epithelia actively
and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous materials,
such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments.
These epithelia line the hollow tubes of the digestive
system and the kidney, where lumens open into the external
environment

102
Q

How can transport epithilia can be identified

A

Simple epethilia, cuboidal or columnar

Has microvilli

Tight to very tight jucntions

have numerous mitochondria

103
Q

Role of ciliated epthilia

A

nontransporting tissues
that line the respiratory system and parts of the female reproductive
tract. The surface of the tissue facing the lumen is covered
with cilia that beat in a coordinated, rhythmic fashion, moving
fluid and particles across the surface of the tissue.

Simple columnar or cuboidal

104
Q

Protective epithelia:role, of what cells it is composed of, how it can be hardened, life span

A

Prevent the exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to mechanical or chemical stresses.

Stratified epethilia

Can be strengthened with keratin

Short life span

105
Q

Secretory epethilia: role, types

A

Can be exocrine or endocrine

To produce and secrete substances

106
Q

Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

A

Exocrine: surface of the skin, airways in the lung, lumen of the intestine. usually have ducts to transport the hormone

Endocrine: ductless, produce hormones into the blood

107
Q

What are goblet cells

A

Single exocrine cells that produce mucus

108
Q

Distinguishing characteristic of connective tissue

A

Extensive ECM

109
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Ground substance is gel,more ground than fibers and cells, has collagen, elastic, reticular and random and main cell type is fibroblast

A

Loose connective tissue: skin, around blood vessels and organs, under epithilia

110
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Ground substance:more fibers than ground, mostly collagen and arrangement is random, main cell type is fibroblast

A

Denses, irregular connective tissue

Muscle and nerve sheaths

111
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

More fibers than ground, collagen, arrangement is parallel, main cell types is fibroblast

A

Dense, regular connective tissue

Tendons and ligaments

112
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Very little ground substance, no arrangement or fiber type, main cell type is brown fat and white fat

A

Adipose

113
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Aqueous, no arrangement or ground substance, main cell type is blood cells

A

In blood and lymph vessels

114
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Firm but flexible; hyaluronic acid, fiber type-collagen, main cells types-chondroblasts

A

Cartilage

Joint surface, spine, ear, nose, larynx

115
Q

Guess what type of connective tissue is that

Rigid due to calcium salts, fiber type:collagen, main cell types osteoblasts and osteoclasts

A

Bones

116
Q

Difference in arrangement between white blood cells and brown cells

A

White-single droplet

Brown-Multiple

117
Q

Three types of fixed cells in connective tissue

A

Macrophages
Adipocytes
Fibroblasts

118
Q

Matrix of connective tissue can bee subdivided into 2 groups

A

Grouns substance

Protein fibers

119
Q

4 types of protein fibers

A

Fibronectin
Fibrilin
Elastin
Collagen

120
Q

3 types of muscle tissue

A

Cardiac
Smooth
Skeletal

121
Q

2 types of cells in neural tissue

A

Neurons and glial cells

122
Q

How do distinguish between skeletal and cardiac muscles

A

Cardiac- have intercalated disks, nucleus inside the cells , not as flat

123
Q

2 types of cell connections in intercalated disks

A

Desmosomes and gap junctions

124
Q

As cells mature, they ___

A

Differentiate

125
Q

What is the name of cells in embryo that are not yet differentiated

A

Totipotent-has the capacity to form an entire organism.

126
Q

Another name for stem cells in the organism

A

Pluripotent

127
Q

Why stem cells hold a great promise for medical therapies

A

1) undifferentiated cells-> can give rise to almost all cell type
2) highly proliferative-> large quantities can be produced for medical purposes

Can be used for damage sin spinal cord, CVD, Alzheimer’s

128
Q

Alternative source of stem cells

A

Adult bone marrow, testis stem cells

129
Q

What is gene recipe for stem cell from fibroblasts

A

Oct3/4, Sox2,c-Myc and Klf4-. forced expression

130
Q

What are self markers

A

Molecules on the surface f human cells that are unique to an individual, thus identifying the cell as self to the immune system

131
Q

What is self-tolerance

A

The ability of our immune system to attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare our own normal cells

132
Q

Non-self markers are

A

Molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells-> non-self markers

133
Q

Protein channels are used for

A

Controlled transport of water soluble molecules

134
Q

How is the process of adjusting urine levels work

A 
The initial response to cellular
dehydration is release of ADH
ADH acts on the distal tubule of the
kidney to increase water
permeability by inserting aquaporin
channels into cell membranes
Water moves out of the distal convoluted
tubule of the kidney by osmosis
through these channels –
decreasing osmolarity
Overall effect is an increased water
reabsorption by the kidney and a
decrease in urine flow
135
Q

membrane receptor function

A

When bound by a ligand triggers an intracellular signaling cascade that will alter intracellular activities

136
Q

Integral proteins role

A

binds other
integral membrane proteins
to form cell-cell connections

binds ECM to give
structure to tissues

Involved in wound healing,
angiogenesis, development,
embryo attachment, cancer
invasion

137
Q

Composition of ribosomes

A

Each ribosome is a non-membranous structure
made of two pieces, a large subunit and a small
subunit; each subunit is composed of rRNA

138
Q

What happens in Parkinson disease

A

the proteosome system fails and
improperly folded proteins kill nerve cells in the brain that
regulate muscle tension
80

139
Q

Types of chromation

A

oHfefterochromatingenes
off
Euchromatin-genes
on

140
Q

Mechanism of muscle contraction

A 
The myosin heads bend with a
strong force when they bind the
actin filaments
• This pulls the thin filaments past
them
• Each head then release and this
pulls again
• This pulling by the myosin heads
and the sliding of the actin is the
essential movement of the muscle
contraction
141
Q

How can you get stem cells

A

When zygote is formed
OR
Enucleated oocyte (egg with removed nucelus), where the nucleus of the host is put->zygote-> cell division->stem cells

Mam Physiology (16 decks)

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