Sci - masmas Flashcards
is an all space - time, matter and energy including the solar system, all stars and galaxies and content of intergalactic space, regarded as a whole.
Universe
It states that the counting of the galaxies in our Universe is constant and new galaxies which are forming continuously are filling the empty spaces which are created by those heavenly bodies which have crossed the boundary lines of the observable Universe.
Steady State Theory
It is assumed that there is continuous expansion and contraction in the universe. It proposes that the universe will keep on expanding more and more then slowly it stops. Then it will start to contract due to gravitation. This contraction will continue until the universe becomes more compact and will later explode and expand again.
Pulsating Theory
It proposes that the entire universe was once condensed in a very small and compact particle called singularity or primeval nucleus. It is estimated that about 20 billion years ago, the singularity suddenly exploded in a - The force of this explosion caused matter to scatter in any direction forming a universe.
Big Bang Theory
Symbolic Narrative of the beginning of the world as understood by a culture.
Origin of the Universe: Creation Myths
According to this theory, the sun and other celestial bodies orbiting around it were formed from a NEBULA
Nebular Hypothesis
a spinning cloud of gases.
nebula
is the gradual increase in the size of an object by the buildup of matter due to gravity.
theory says that a protosun passing through a cloud of interstellar materials pulled this material along causing it to swirl around the protosun. As the protosun evolved into the sun, the material it accreted gradually formed the planets and other revolving bodies.
Accretion Theory
According to this theory, the time when the sun is about to form (protosun), a large body passing around it may have drawn some gaseous materials from it. The mass of gaseous materials drawn did not completely escape the gravitational pull of the protosun. It continued to spin around it, eventually becoming more dense and gradually formed into planetesimals. These planetesimals give rise to the planets and satellites.
Tidal Theory
is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. Complex and brilliant combination of gasses, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons why it can sustain life.
Earth
describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in Earth. This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle below us and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores. The continents, the ocean floor, all of the rocks on the surface, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered part of the - Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it’s part of the ‘ground’ sphere.
Geosphere
is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other layers. It is a part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer that extends underneath the ocean and continents.
Crust
This is mostly composed of different types of granites.
Continental Crust
The rocks in the continental crust are mostly referred to as “-“ which stands for silicate and aluminum.
sial
This is mostly composed of different types of basalts.
Oceanic Crust
Rocks of the oceanic crust are mostly referred to as “-“ which stands for silicate and magnesium.
sima
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The - lies between Earth’s dense, super heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust.
Mantle
relatively rigid and contains the asthenosphere, a semi-fluid layer that allows the movement of tectonic plates.
Upper Mantle
contributes to the overall convection and heat transfer within the Earth’s interior.
Lower Mantle
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The - is made almost entirely of iron and nickel. The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle.
Core
is a liquid layer composed mainly of molten iron and nickel. It has a temperature between 4500 to 5500 degree Celsius.
Outer Core
solid, central part of the earth. It is composed of solid iron and nickel. The temperature ranges about 5200 degrees Celsius.
Inner Core
Over 70 percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earth’s water, solid or in liquid form, those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earth’s -.
Hydrosphere
A big portion of earth’s water is found in -. The - cover more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface and contain 97 percent of the Earth’s water.
Ocean
A volume of a fresh flowing water across the surface of the land usually to the sea.
Rivers
A reservoir of relatively still water that is surrounded by land. It is formed from the accumulation of large amounts of water in natural or artificial depressions on the surface of the land. Other inland waters include ponds, spring, stream, wetlands, floodplains, and reservoirs.
Lakes
It is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. It results from the accumulation of water penetrating through small openings called pores in the rocks or soil. This process is known as percolation.
Ground Water
About 2 percent of earth’s waters is in a form of solid, massive bodies of ice called glaciers. Deposited snow that falls during winter season piles up yearly. This accumulated snow transforms the lower layers into solid ice.
A Massive Body of Ice
Describe Water Cycle
From liquid to ice to gas and back again.
A very huge envelope of air that surrounds the earth and pulled by the gravitational force of the earth is called
Atmosphere
lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere, extending from the Earth’s surface up to an average altitude of about 12 kilometers
-It is the layer where weather occurs, and it is where we live and breathe.
Troposphere
-layer of Earth’s atmosphere located above the troposphere. It extends roughly from an altitude of about 12 kilometers to 50 kilometers above the Earth’s surface.
-is also home to the ozone layer, which shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation.
Stratosphere
is the third layer of Earth’s atmosphere. It extends approximately from an altitude of about 50 kilometers to 85 kilometers above the Earth’s surface.
-The is characterized by thin air and low atmospheric pressure. It is also the layer where meteors burn up upon entry into the Earth’s atmosphere, creating the visual phenomenon known as shooting stars.
Mesosphere
- is the fourth layer of Earth’s atmosphere. It begins approximately at an altitude of 85 kilometers and has no clearly defined upper boundary. The - is primarily composed of individual gas molecules, such as oxygen and nitrogen, rather than molecular combinations.
-The - is also where the auroras, such as the Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur.
Thermosphere
-outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere, located above the thermosphere. It is the uppermost region of the atmosphere and gradually transitions into the vacuum of space.
-The - is where satellites and other human-made objects in Earth’s orbit are found. Satellites are strategically placed in orbit within the exosphere to perform their various functions.
Exosphere
-where all forms of life exist. Since life exists in the air, in water and on the ground, its boundaries overlap other “spheres” because life can be found everywhere on earth. The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem
-a complex community of living and nonliving things functioning as a single unit.
Biosphere
The Four Subsystems of the Earth:
-Geosphere
-Hydrosphere
-Atmosphere
-Biosphere
is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals
Rocks
Form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or magma) into solid form
Igneous Rocks
Molten Material:
Classification as Igneous Rocks:
On the Earth’s surface
lava
Extrusive or volcanic
Molten Material:
Classification as Igneous Rocks:
Underground
magma
Intrusive or plutonic
Texture:
Grains (crystal) can be seen with bare eyes
Coarse-grained
Texture:
Grains can only be seen through a hand lens
Medium-grained
Texture:
Grains can only be seen through a microscope
Fine-grained
Based on colorations:
Granite, Rhyolite
Light Colored
Based on colorations:
Diorite, Andestine
Medium Colored
Based on colorations:
Gabbro, Basalt
Dark Colored
Results from the uplift and weathering, which are then transported and deposited in different areas.
Sedimentary
The process by which the sediments are transformed into sedimentary rocks is called
Lithification.
As piles of sediments accumulate, the underlying materials are compacted by the weight of the overlaying layers.
Compaction
The water that seeps through pore spaces between particles may contain cementing materials.
Cementation
By the compaction of separate particles, or sediments, or weathered rocks.
Detrital
These rocks come from soluble materials produced largely by chemical weathering.
Chemical
form when existing rocks (called parent rocks) are subjected to intense heat and pressure
Metamorphic Rocks
The preexisting rocks may undergo changes in the mineralogy texture (like grain size), and chemical composition by the action of heat, pressure (stress), and chemical agents. The process of transformation is called
metamorphism.
This may come from magma rising from below or when rocks are transplanted to a greater depth. Heat causes chemical reactions that result in recrystallization of existing minerals and/or formation of new minerals
Heat
causes the space between mineral grains in the buried rocks to close, producing a more compact rock with higher density.
Stress/Pressure
These include water, carbon dioxide, and other volatile materials. They act as catalysts to promote crystallization by enhancing ion migrations
Chemically active fluids
Describe rock Cycle
constantly being recycled and change into new forms through geological processes
describe the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms of a mineral.
Crystal Structure
Refers to the overall shape of the mineral. Common shapes include needlelike (acicular), plantlike (dendritic), kidney-shaped (reniform), elongated in one direction (prismatic) and broad and flat (tabular).
Crystal Habit
Refers to the mineral’s resistance to scratch.
Hardness
Minerals come in different colors especially mineral gems. Mineral gems or gemstones include diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal etc.
Color
mineral refers to the color of the mineral in powdered form.
Streak
A mineral is transparent if it allows the light to pass through and you can see objects through. Otherwise, it is opaque. It is translucent if it is between transparent and opaque
Transparency
indicated how light is reflected off a surface of a mineral. It can be metallic, vitreous or glass, pearly, dull, greasy, and silky.
Luster
Refers to the mineral’s resistance to being broken.
Cleavage
Describes the mineral’s density in comparison to the density of a standard like water
Specific gravity
Some minerals are reactive with acids, magnets and some are good conductors of electricity
Other properties
Are external processes that occur at or near the surface of the Earth and are part of the rock cycle. They are responsible for transforming rock into sediment. This include degradation processes
Exogenic Process
The physical breakdown and/or chemical alteration of rock at or near Earth’s surface is referred to as
Weathering
Types of Mechanical Weathering
-Frost Wedging or Frost Weathering
-Isolation Weathering or Thermal Stress
-Unloading and pressure release
This occurs in regions where temperature fluctuates above and below freezing point, resulting in a freeze-thaw cycle.
Frost Wedging or Frost Weathering
This results from the expansion and contraction of rocks caused by temperature changes.
Isolation Weathering or Thermal Stress
This occurs when the overlying rock is eroded away, causing the outer rock layer to expand more than the layers underneath. This expansion may separate the outer rock from the rock body. Continued weathering causes sheets of rocks to break away.
Unloading and pressure release
Types of Chemical Weathering
-Oxidation
-Hydrolysis
-Carbonation and Solution
-Biological Action
Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize some materials. Reddish-brown rust will appear on the surface of iron-rich minerals which easily crumbles and weakens the rock
Oxidation
Water is perhaps the most important agent of chemical weathering. It interacts with certain elements with result to the change of composition of rocks and minerals
Hydrolysis
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid and reacts with carbonate rocks to form a soluble product (calcium bicarbonate)
Carbonation and Solution
Some plants and Animals may create chemical weathering by releasing, chelating and audifying compounds that react with some minerals in rocks. Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids and, when dissolved in water, may cause chemical weathering.
Biological Action
The mass movement of rocks, soil and regolith is often referred to as -. It is the step that follows weathering and is also a degradation process. The driving force of - is gravity
Mass Wasting
Occurs when a piece of rock or mass of rocks become dislodged and makes free-fall along a steep cliff
Rock Falls
it involves a mixture of soil regolith, vegetation, and rocks. At the base of the cliff is an accumulation of fallen materials called talus
Debris Falls
Are sudden fast movements of cohesive mass of soil, rock, or regolith.
Landslides
Involve the movement of a mass of materials along a well-defined surface
Translational slides
slumps occur when the descending materials move on mass along a concave
Rotational slides
consist of a mixture of rocks and/or regolith with 20% to 40% water. They are considered as water-saturated flows
Slurry flows
Contain 0 to 20% water. They are not saturated with water
Granular flows
induce mass movement. Example of - include the removal of vegetation through logging and urban development among others
Human Activities and Mass wasting
is the process of transporting weathered sediments by agents
Erosion
is the primary agent of erosion on Earth.
Water
a thick large mass of ice formed hundreds or thousands of years mostly in remote areas like in the poles or in high mountains. - can erode land through plucking and abrasion
Glaciers
carries dust, sand and volcanic ash from one place to another. In dry areas, strong wind wears away soft rocks and also polishes rocks and cliffs until they are smooth
Wind
Materials are transported into four distinct ways - as solution, suspension, by traction or through saltation
Transportation
Whenever stream velocity decreases, it deposits the sediments it carries. The material deposit of a stream is called alluvium, Deltas are formed when river loses energy as it flows into an area of slow-moving water
Water
As they move across the land, pick up and transport huge loads of debris. These materials are deposited when - melt.
Glacier and Landforms
is considered to be a significant agent in creating landforms. Accumulations of windblown sediments are usually found in dry lands and along sandy coasts.
Wind and Landforms
the study of the processes that deform Earth’s crust.
Tectonics
suggested that the continents were all originally part of a huge landmass (supercontinent) called Pangaea that was surrounded by a single ocean, Panthalassa.
Alfred Wegener
Wegener noticed that - fit together like pieces in jigsaw puzzle.
Africa and South America
proposes that the lithosphere consists of seven segments and numerous smaller ones called plates. The plates rest upon the soft layer of the asthenosphere.
Plate tectonic theory
is a fracture separating one plate from another.
Plate Boundary
This occurs when two plates move toward each other. The heavier plate subducts beneath the more buoyant plate
Convergent Boundary
This forms trenches, destructive earthquakes, and rapid uplift of mountain ranges, and building of volcanic arc
Oceanic-Continental Convergence
This form mountain ranges
Continental-Continental Convergence
This forms trenches and volcanic arc
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
This occurs when two plates move away, When plates move apart, there is upwelling of magma from the hot mantle below.
Divergent Boundary
occurs when plates slide horizontally past one another.
Transform fault boundary
refers to the change in the original shape and size of a rock. This is caused by tectonic forces which are through folding and faulting.
Deformation
occurs when rocks are pushed towards each other from opposite sides.
Folding
is the fracturing and displacement of brittle rocks strata along a fault plane.
Faulting
is a phenomenon in which materials are erupted from Earth’s interior onto surface through volcanoes
Volcanism
molten material found in the Earth’s interior.
Magma
is the erupted molten material.
Lava
doesn’t form just anywhere. It forms in three particular environments: subduction zones, divergent zones, and hot spots or mantle plumes
Magma
refers to the magma that flows out of Earth’s surface. Because of its high temperature, combustible materials like houses, trees, and gasses burn when engulfed by -
Lava
Volcanic eruption emits a variety of gasses from water vapor, carbon dioxide, toxic gasses like carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Even hydrochloric acid.
Gasses
The solid particles thrown out of the volcanic eruption are known as
Solids
The history of the Earth is recorded in -
Rocks
The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks, but the - is inherently incomplete. Some ‘events’ do not leave a record or are not preserved. Some of the - may have also been lost through the rock cycle.
Rock Record
-which is the timeline of the history of the Earth, is based on the rock record
-It is subdivided into hierarchical intervals, the largest being eon, followed by era, period, and epoch. This is based on the significant events in Earth’s history.
Geologic Time Scale
divided the rock-time units (from oldest to youngest): primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary.
Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749 - 1817)
Werner used the - to establish temporal relationships among the rock units.
Principle of Superposition
is the study of stratified/layered rocks.
Stratigraphy
One of the first to recognize the correspondence between rocks and time was
Nicholas Steno (1638-1686)
deals with the use of fossils in correlation and establishes the relative ages of rocks.
Biostratigraphy
observed that each layer or strata of sedimentary rock contains a distinct assemblage of fossils, which can be used to establish equivalence between rock units separated by long distances.
‘Strata’ Smith (1769-1839)
recognized the utility of fossils in subdividing geologic time based on fossils. He subdivided the tertiary by examining the proportion of living vs. extinct fossils in the rock. The reason for this definite and orderly succession of fossils in the rock record is organic evolution.
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
is part of the Cenozoic Era, from 66.4 to 1.5 million years ago.
Tertiary period
are marker fossils used to define periods of geologic time.
Index fossils
-occupies a large part of the geologic time scale (about 88%).
Precambrian Era
- Not much life during this period.
- Only simple life forms that do not have preservable hard parts may have existed during this time.
Precambrian Era
During the - the earth was continuously bombarded by meteorites and the earth had severe volcanism.
Hadean eon (4.6 to 3.8 Gya)
During the - the atmosphere of the earth contained mostly methane and little to no oxygen.
Archean eon (3.8 to 4.6 Gya)
is the longest time in the geologic time scale.
Proterozoic eon (2.5 Gya to 542 Mya)
- Many fossils were found in layers of sedimentary rock.
- By the end of this era, marine life forms had developed shells. So as other marine life forms developed.
- Fish became more abundant and showed greater variety,
- The late Paleozoic era showed the appearance of reptiles.
- Towards the end, the land climate changed as plants grew during this era.
Paleozoic Era (540 to 245 Mya)
The first animal to succeed in adapting itself to breathe air was an
amphibian
-saw the formation of several continents and became near to its present day positions.
* With the formation of continents, new bodies of water were formed.
* The largest creatures that existed during this era were the dinosaurs (refers to large reptiles that lived during this time)
* Reptiles were the first true terrestrial vertebrates to exist, however, reptile groups became extinct.
* The only surviving reptiles today are turtles, snakes, crocodiles, and lizards.
Mesozoic Era (245 to 65 Mya)
Known as the “Age of reptiles”
Mesozoic Era (245 to 65 Mya)
- Mountains were uplifted and new life forms started appearing.
- Volcanic activity was also widespread resulting in immense flows of lava and basalt.
- Fossils during this era showed mammals with tooth structures.
- Resulted in the development of our modern-day animals.
- Global Ice age began.
- Humans left their marks on land.
Cenozoic Era (65 Mya to Present)
Regarded as “Age of mammals”
Cenozoic Era (65 Mya to Present)
