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Bioscience 2 > Reproductive Systems and Fertility - 1 and 2 > Flashcards

Reproductive Systems and Fertility - 1 and 2 Flashcards

1
Q

How many chromosomes are involved in mitosis and what offspring is produced?

A

1 maternal and 1 paternal chromosome

–> 2 genetically identical daughter cells
produced

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2
Q

How many chromosomes are involved in meiosis and what offspring is produced?

A

1 maternal and 1 paternal chromosome

Meiosis 1 = crossing over of chromosomes
Meiosis 2 = 4 genetically different
chromosomes produced

= 4 genetically different offspring cells
produced

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3
Q

What causes differences between siblings?

A

= Meiosis - crossing over = independent assortment of chromosomes

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4
Q

What is a gonad?

A

The organ where gametes are produced
They also produce hormones that control secondary sexual characteristics.

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5
Q

What is the female gonad and what is the male gonad?

A

Ovary in female
Testes in male

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6
Q

What are germ cells?

A

Any cell in the series of the germ line that eventually become gametes
Often indicate the cells before meiosis

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7
Q

What are the germ cells called found in the testis and in the ovary?

A

Spermatogonia in the testis
Oogonia in the ovary

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8
Q

What is the origin of germ cells?

A

Germ cells originate from primordial germ cells (PGCs)

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9
Q

How are primordial germ cells (PGCs) formed?

A

PGC arises in the posterior yolk sac and stay there until gonads are formed

Gonads form from the genital ridge and become testis or ovary

PGCs migrate into the gonad and then reside as germ cells

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10
Q

What is spermatogenesis?

A

The production of sperm from the primordial germ cells.

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11
Q

When are primordial germ cells formed?

A
  • 3-6 weeks of embryogenesis - PGCs are
    formed
  • 2-3 months of embryogenesis PGCs migrate
    into the gonad (future testis) becoming
    dormant
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12
Q

What happens at puberty in males ?

A

Testosterone causes maturation of seminiferous tubules in the testis.

Allowing spermatogonia to proliferate and enter meiosis. = commencement of meiosis in a wave

Some spermatogonia remain - functioning as stem cells

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13
Q

What is the testis made out of ?

A

= Seminiferous tubules

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14
Q

What is the order of spermatogenesis?

A

Primordial germ cell (PGC) enters gonad –> Spermatogonium (puberty) –> diploid spermatogonia proliferate by mitotic cell division inside testis –> Primary spermatocyte –> Meiotic division 1 = Secondary spermatocyte –> Meiotic division 2 = Spermatids —> differentiation => Spermatozoa = Sperm

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15
Q

Where does spermatogenesis take place?

A

In the seminiferous tubule

  • In close relation to Sertoli cells
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16
Q

Where are Sertoli cells located?

A

Span from the basement membrane to the lumen, surrounding differentiating spermatogonia

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17
Q

What is the function of Sertoli cells?

A

Produce enzymes and growth factors required for spermatogenesis
Also a function as a phagocyte to clean up residual cytoplasm of sperm

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18
Q

What are Leydig cells?

A

Interstitial cells
Secrete testosterone in response to LH

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19
Q

Where are Leydig cells located?

A

Reside outside of seminiferous tubules

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20
Q

When do sperm undergo most of their differentiation?

A

= after the completion of meiosis

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21
Q

How do sperm share the cytoplasm?

A

via cytoplasmic bridges

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22
Q

How is sperm sharing the cytoplasm via cytoplasmic bridges during spermatogenesis beneficial?

A

After meiosis some cells only have Y chromosomes and no X chromosomes.

By sharing the cytoplasm until the last stage of differentiation, sperm with Y chromosomes can be supplies with essential proteins encoded by genes on the X chromosomes.

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23
Q

What is spermiogenesis?

A

= differentiation step of spermatids becoming a highly specialised spermatozoa

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24
Q

Where does spermiogenesis occur?

A

In the seminiferous tubules

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25
Q

What are the 5 key stages of spermiogenesis?

A
  1. Nucleus condense
  2. Formation of acrosome
  3. Formation of flagellum
  4. Mitochondria gathered at the midpiece –>
    generate ATP for movement of cilia
  5. Removal of excess cytoplasm
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26
Q

After spermiogenesis where do sperm go?

A

Sperms are released to the lumen and then transferred to the epididymis

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27
Q

What is spermiation?

A

The process of sperm being released from the Sertoli cells to the lumen.

Sperms are not motile (cant move) when released

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28
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

A long single duct with peristaltic contraction

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29
Q

What is the function of the epididymis?

A

Serves as a reservoir for sperm - their passage takes 1-21 days

Concentrates the fluid x100

Sperm undergo further maturation, acquiring mobility, increasing dependence on fructose for energy production

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30
Q

What is the path of the sperm?

A

Testis –> Epididymis –> Ductus deferens = Vas deferens –> Vesicular gland = Seminal vesicle –> prostate –> Bulbourethral gland –> Urethra

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31
Q

What is capacitation?

A

The final stage of maturation of sperm

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32
Q

Where does capacitation take place?

A

In the female’s genital tract for ~ 7 hrs

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33
Q

What are the 2 key features for capacitation?

A
  • Hyperactive tail movement
  • Acrosome reaction: plasma membrane and
    acrosome membrane fuse in the tip. Other
    parts fuse with the plasma membrane of the
    oocyte
34
Q

What is the definition of infertility?

A

Inability to conceive within 12 months

35
Q

What is the probability of achieving pregnancy per menstrual cycle ?

A

= 20 -25% - in a healthy young couple

  • So in theory 98% of couples should be pregnant within 13 months. Reality is 85% in 12 months
36
Q

What % male and female factors is a couples infertility attributed to?

A

Male factors - 25%
Female factors - 58%

  • the rest unexplained
37
Q

What % of women are estimated to be infertile?

A

14%

38
Q

Why has the proportion of couples without children risen but the infertility rate has not changed?

A

= due to a trend in delaying childbearing

39
Q

What are some causes of male infertility?

A
  • Primary hypogonadism ( absence of testis,
    chemotherapy, radiation) 30-40%
  • Secondary hypogonadism ( hypothalamic -
    pituitary disease) 2%
  • Disordered sperm transport 10-20%
  • Unknown 40-50%
40
Q

What is a deferentectomy (vasectomy) ?

A
  • common method of male sterilisation
  • Cut and ligated ductus deferens
41
Q

What happens in a deferentectomy (vasectomy) as sperm is constantly produced?

A
  • Unexpelled sperms degenerate in the
    epididymis
  • Fluid is ejaculated from the seminal glands,
    prostate and bulbourethral glands
42
Q

What is oogenesis?

A

The differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a mature ovum to further develop when fertilised.

43
Q

What are the key steps of oogenesis?

A

Primordial germ cell (PGC) enters gonad –> Oogonium –> Diploid oogonia proliferate by mitotic cell division inside ovary –> Primary oocyte –> Division 1 of meiosis stops in prophase as the primary oocyte grows –> further development of primary oocyte –> Puberty –> Maturation of primary oocyte - Completion of division 1 of meiosis –> Secondary oocyte –> division 2 of meiosis = Mature ovum (egg)

44
Q

When are primordial germ cells PGCs formed?

A

4-6 weeks of embryogenesis

45
Q

What happens at 6 - 12 weeks of embryogenesis?

A

PGCs migrate into developing gonad (future ovary)

Now called Oogonia

46
Q

What happens after the oogonia have formed?

A

proliferation

47
Q

What happens at week 12 of embryogenesis?

A

-Oogonia enter the first mitotic prophase =>
Now called primary oocyte

  • Follicle cells in the ovary surround the oocyte, forming the primordial follicle
48
Q

Do primordial follicles increase or reduce over time?

A
  • 5 months of embryogenesis = 7 million
    primordial follicles
  • at birth: reduced to 0.7 ~ 2 millions after
    degradation
  • at puberty: 700,000 of primordial follicle
49
Q

What happens to primordial follicles after puberty?

A

A few primordial follicles re-commence meiosis every day, only one is ovulated every month

50
Q

What stage of the oocyte does ovulation occur?

A

The secondary oocyte stage

51
Q

When will the second meiosis (second polar body) be formed?

A

ONLY if fertilisation occurs

52
Q

What is a primordial follicle?

A

a primary oocyte with enlarged cytoplasm with a flat one cell layer of follicular (granulsoa) cells = the dormant status

53
Q

What is a primary follicle?

A

Chosen to re-commence growth. Follicular cells become cuboid and proliferate into multiple layers

54
Q

What is a preovulatory follicle?

A

One of the secondary follicles that is chosen to mature for ovulatio

55
Q

What is a secondary follicle?

A

With antrum ( a cavity) with fluid from granulsoa cells

56
Q

What is a follicle with a large antrum called?

A

a Graafian follicle

57
Q

What is zone pellucida?

A

A layer of glycoprotein, translucent

58
Q

What are the 2 pituitary hormones involved in the menstrual cycle?

A

FSH
LH

59
Q

What are the 2 ovarian hormones involved in the menstrual cycle?

A

Estrogen
Progesterone

60
Q

What are the 5 stages in the menstrual cycle?

A
  1. Preparation for implantation
  2. Preparation for fertilisation
  3. Ovulation
  4. Preparation for implantation
  5. Preparation for fertilisation
61
Q

What is day 1-5 of the menstrual cycle called?

A

Menstrual phase

62
Q

What is day 5-14 of the menstrual cycle called and what hormone is produced to cause it?

A

Proliferative Phase

  • the follicle and thecal cells proliferate and secrete estrogens.
    Estrogens cause the endometrial lining of the uterus to proliferate.
63
Q

What happens at day 13-14 of the menstrual cycle?

A

FSH and LH levels rise sharply
It induces ovulation and progresses meiosis

64
Q

What is day 14-28 of the menstrual cycle called?

A

Secretory phase

65
Q

What day is defined as day 1 in the menstrual cycle?

A

The first day of menstruation

66
Q

What is and what happens at ovulation?

A

The expulsion of a mature (secondary) oocyte from the follicle to the abdominal cavity.

Takes place ~ 38 hrs after the LH surge

The ovum is collected by the trumpet shaped distal end of the uterine tube (infundibulum) with fimbriae. –> re start of meiosis

67
Q

Why don’t eggs in the ovary all mature at the same rate?

A

A few primordial follicles commence growth every day so there are follicles all at various stages in the ovary.

68
Q

What happens to most of the follicular cells after ovulation?

A
  • Most stay in the ovary and become corpus
    luteum
  • The ones directly surrounding the oocyte
    remain attached to the oocyte after
    ovulation.
69
Q

What are the 3 steps that have to occur when a sperm meets an oocyte?

A
  1. Sperm has to migrate through the layer of
    follicular cells (corona radiata)
  2. Penetrate the zona pellucia using an
    enzyme in acrosome
  3. Fuse the plasma membrane to that of the
    oocyte
70
Q

When does the second division of meiosis complete?

A

Completes when the sperm enters

71
Q

Where does the fertilised egg travel?

A

to the uterus for the development of the human embryo

72
Q

What does the embryoblast (inner cell mass) mean?

A

= becoming embryo

73
Q

What does trophoblast mean?

A

= becoming extraembryonic tissues

74
Q

What is the first step of implantation on day 6?

A

Blastocyst attaches to the endometrium at the embryonic pole

75
Q

What is the second step of implantation on day 6-7?

A

Some trophoblast cells (syncytiotrophoblast) invade into the endometrium, beginning to form part of the placenta

76
Q

What is the third step of implantation on day 8?

A

The inner cell mass becomes a flat sheet consisting of epiblast and hypoblast

An additional cavity appears on the epiblast side (amniotic cavity)

77
Q

What happens on day 9 - 10 of implantation?

A
  • Full embedding
  • Maternal blood enter cavities in the
    trophoblastic layer
78
Q

What is hCG and what is its function?

A

hCG = human chorionic gonadotrophin

hCG maintains the hormonal activity of the corpus luteum in the ovary. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone to maintain pregnancy

79
Q

What are the two types of contraceptive pill?

A
  • estrogen and progestogen
  • progestogen only

=> both aim to mimic the luteal phase
(secretory phase)

80
Q

What are some of the causes of infertility in females?

A
  • Amenorrhea - absence of menstruation /
    ovulatory dysfunction - 46%
  • Tubal defect - 38%
  • Endometriosis (endometrium like tissue is
    found outside the uterus) - 9%
81
Q

What are the 6 main steps in In Vitro Fertilisation?

A
  1. Induce maturation of follicles by hormones,
    including FSH and hCG
  2. Several follicles mature (instead of one, as
    would naturally)
  3. Collect oocytes by laparoscopy or with
    guide of transvaginal sonography
  4. Add sperm
  5. Successfully fertilised ones undergo
    cleavage in vitro
  6. Implant back into the uterus

Bioscience 2 (21 decks)

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