Reproduction Flashcards
What should you do if twin conceptuses are next to each other
Wait 30 mins for one to move
When can a foetus be identified on trans rectal ultrasound
12 days
When does plasma progesterone elevate in pregnancy
Day 18-20
When can a foetus be felt through rectal palpation
Day 21
When is plasma equine chorionic gonadotropin present
Day 60-120
When can the foetus be balloted transrectally
Day 150
When do endometrial cups form
Day 40-45
What are the ideal scan dates for pregnancy
14, 21 and 40 days
Why can twins be different sizes
Eggs ovulated on different days
When does the embryo fix
17 days
When does the embryo lift
24 days
When is the last day for pregnancy intervention
35
How can pregnancy length be detected
Measuring foetal eye vs foetus size
Factors that can affect ability to carry a pregnancy
RAO
PPID
Medication
Pbz - can impact ability to get pregnant
Laminitis
Previous midline incision
Orthopedic problems
Previous problems with foals/foaling
How can vulval melanomas affect ability to get pregnant
Difficult to clean, prone to endometritis
What is significant central abdominal bulge a sign of?
Pre-pubic tendon rupture
Problems of pre-pubic tendon rupture
Pain
Oedema
Lack of propulsive contractions
Indications for induction of parturition
Dystocia
Premature placental separation
Abnormal mares eg pre-pubic tendon rupture
Very uncomfortable mares/running milk
Those with open cervix
Complications of parturition induction
Dystocia due to foals not rotating
Premature placental separation
Foetal hypoxia/ death
Dysmature/immature foal
Criteria for induction
At least 330 days gestation
Adequate mammary development/milk production
Suitable cervical softening
What do mild cases of hypocalcemia present as
Hyperaesthesia and dry faeces
Clinical signs of hypocalcemia
Recumbency when severe
Inability to prehend food
Diaphragmatic asynchrony (thumps)
Immediately pre or post partum
Treatment of hypocalcemia
Slow infusion of calcium borogluconate whilst monitoring cardiac activity
What surgery is used to close the dorsal commissure of the vulva
Caslick vulvoplasty
Technique for caslick
Restrain mare
Clean vulva
Locally infiltrate local anaesthetic
Remove 4mm strip of vulvular mucosa
Close with interrupted/continuous sutures
Aim of an episioplasty
Reduce the vestibule diameter to reduce incidence of pneumovagina by removing a triangular piece of the dorsal vestibule wall
What precautions do you need to take with an episioplasty
Do not breed for 4 weeks
Care when covering
May need episiotomy at foaling
Wound may breakdown
What does a perineal body transection do
Increase the distance between the anus and vulva to correct severe conformational abnormalities leading to pneumovagina
How do you treat a 3rd degree perineal laceration
Tat??
Antimicrobials
Local irrigation
Vaseline
Leave 5-6 weeks for second intention healing
What should you advise the owner of with 3rd degree perineal laceration
Do not use that breeding season
Anus may never function
May require multiple surgeries to repair
What is the purpose of a clitoral sinusectomy
To remove the sinus areas to ensure CEMO cannot be harboured
What is a red bag delivery
When the placenta prematurely detaches so the bag appears red, foal must be gotten out asap
How does endometritis prevent pregnancy
Bacterial or inflammatory presence when the foetus enters the uterus on day 5/6 prevents the mare from staying pregnant by creating a hostile environment
What is the difference in bacteriological screening between a low risk and a high risk stallion
Low risk require 2 sets of swabs 7 days apart
High risk also require screening of 4 mares post screening
What should you swab a stallion
Urethra
Urethral fossa
Sheath
(Pre-ejaculatory fluid)
What should happen if CEM is cultured
Stop mating and seek advice
Isolate
Lab will notify defra who may give directions
Swab at risks
One straw from every ejaculate must be tested
At risk pregnant mares must be foaled in isolation and the foals swabbed
Do not breed until clear
Mare presentations
Maiden
Pregnant
Barren
Why does prolonged diestrus occur
Persistence of secondary CL in absence of pregnancy
Occurs with diestrus ovulation
Uterus and cervix of luteal phase
Shown by failure to return to oestrus
Treated by PG
How does the transitional period present
Lots of follicles >25mm
How do you bring a mare out of the transitional period and into ovulatory oestrus
10 days altrenogest ovulation will occur 8-12 days after last dose
How can you shorten the luteal phase
Admister prostaglandin
What happened if you place a GnRH implant or hCG injection
Ovulation within 48h
Plan breeding 24h after injection
When is castration normally performed
6-12 months
Technique for standing castration
Open technique
Restraint
Parenteral antibiotics
TAT
Clean scrotum
Inject 10ml lignocaine in 2-3 sites
Reclean after 15 mins
Incise through skin, dartos, vaginal sac
Squeeze to emerge
Apply traction
Emasculate cord and part of vaginal sac leave for 1-2 mins
Repeat on other testicle
Pull scrotal skin over sac
Closed castration (field)
Incise into scrotum
Blunt dissect tunic transfix across vaginal sac
Emasculators distal to ligature
Cryptorchid castration
In hospital
Inguinal, para inguinal or laparoscopic
Cryptorchid diagnosis
Scrotal palpation
Rectal palpation of inguinal ring
Testosterone response to hCG administration
Most common penile tumour
Squamous cell carcinoma
Where do penile tumours occur
Urethral fossa/diverticula with kissing lesions on preputial ring
Can occur in preputial folds
Prognosis of penile tumours
S3 - 80% unsuccessful
44% S3, 25% S2 3% S1 have mets
Treatment of penile tumours
Local lesions (no invasion) - cryotherapy, local excision, posthioplasty and partial phallectomy
Non invasive - local excision, posthioplasty and partial phallectomy
Extensive spread or invasion - partial phallectomy/sheath ablation
Abdominal spread - palliative treatment or euthanasia
What is the purpose of penile reefing/posthioplasty
Treatment of kissing lesions
Primary need to be removed through pene too amputation
Purpose of penile amputation/partial phallectomy
Treatment of penile neoplasia trauma or non-responsive priapism
Enbloc resection
Very invasive with high complication risk
How does equine herpes virus 3 present in the stallion
Coital exanthema
Small vesicles on penis and sheath
Spontaneous resolution within a few weeks
Can infect mares if breeding at time of infection, these will develop similar lesions
Papilloma virus presentation in the stallion
Small raised florid lesions on the penis, immunity develops and lesions self limit
No treatment required
Can be painful to breed
Bacterial infections in the stalloonv
Rarely cause clinical signs
Found with pre breeding swabs
Pseudomonas presentation in the stallion
Non pathogenic pseudomonas can be cultured but normally treated as venereal pathogen
What venereal pathogens are important
Taylorella equigenitalis CEMO
Klebsiella pneumoniae types 1,2,5
Pseudomonas
Scrotal trauma treatment
Local treatment
Nsaids
Systemic broad spectrum antimicrobials
Can need unilateral castration
Scrotal hernia
Soft swelling, can pop in and out of inguinal ring, normally intestine
Can become strangulated and become an emergency
Testicular haematoma
Swelling following trauma causes
Torsion of spermatic cord
Rotation around the long axis
Severe torsions - marked swelling, abdo pain,
Prompt removal necessary to prevent degeneration of other testicle
Testicular tumour types
Seminoma
Lipoma
Teratoma
Sertoli cell tumour
Treatment for testicular tumours
Castration
What is orchitis
Inflammation of the testicle
What is the difference between a high risk and low risk stallion in terms of screening
2 negative swabs 7 days apart for low risk
High risk as low plus 4 mares screened post mating
Where do you swab a stallion
Urethra
Urethral fossa
Sheath
Pre-ejaculatory fluid
Treatment for isolation of pseudomonas aeroginosa
Topical penile cleaning - 50% acetic acid, 10ml 38% HCl in 4L water
Topical polymyxin
Treatment of klebsiella
45ml of 5.26% sodium hypochlorite in 4L
Topical neomycin
EVA
Clinical signs - malaise, conjunctivitis, cough, dyspnoea, diarrhoea, colic, urticaria, oedema, abortion in mares
Transmission - bodily fluids
Will spread to other mares who will abort
What prevention are available for venereal disease
Vaccination for EVA and EHV1
Inspection for EHV-3 symptoms
Serology for EIA
Semen collection
Appropriate AV prep
Helmet
Experienced people and mare
Filtration of gel fraction
Can collect with run out from use of alpha 2 agonist
Semen evaluation
Normal
Dish water colour
15-100ml
50-700x10^6 sperm/ml
60-80% motility
60% live normal sperm
Normal testicular ultrasound
Echogenic capsule
Hypoechoic parenchyma with echogenic stipples
Echogenic mediastinum
Changes in echotexture can indicate - fibrosis, haemorrhage, oedema, inflammation
Focally - neoplasia, cysts, spermatocele
Common cause of haemospermia
Bacterial urethritis reducing fertility through sperm agglutination
Treated with systemic antibiotics, nsaids and sexual rest
What is phimosis
Small preputial orifice
Usually congenital but can be acquired following trauma, sometimes with neoplasia
Surgical treatment as with the dog
What is paraphimosis
Failure to retract the penis
Marked oedema and drying of the penis
Treatment- establish if urination can occur. Support penis to reduce oedema. Clean daily and if it splits replace it
Ding do surgery
What is priapism
Persistent penile enlargement
Normally causes by phenothiazine tranquillizers
Treatment - attempt manual replacement, place towel clips across sheath for 12h
Sarcoids
Common around sheath
Frequent when young
Can effect protrusion and breeding
Cytotoxic drugs can be useful
Melanoma
Old grey stallions can become large, ulcerate and bleed
Cimetidine can control growth
Excision and autologous vaccine can control growth
Postitis
Inflammation of the sheath
Common causes - coital exanthema, bacterial overgrowth, fly strike
Does nymphomania occur in mares
No but persistent oestrus, granulosa cells tumours and difficult mares can appear so
What does anti mullarian hormone >4ng/ml indicate
Granulosa cells tumours
(98% sensitivity)
Treatment for retained foetal membranes
Broad spectrum antibiotics
Nsaids
Lavage - get fluid back
Gentle twisting
Oxytocin IV every 30-120 mins
Ice feet, pentoxyphyline phosphodiesterase inhibitor (anti sirs)
Where does fertilization occur
The ampulla
When are embryos mobile until
Day 16
When do endometrial cups form
Day 40
When is the heartreate visible
D23-25
After day 40 which hormone is dominant
eCG
What steps should you take for a mare with EHV-3
Isolate from other mares
Do not breed until resolved
Check stallion
Importance question of previous breeding history
Age?
Had a foal before?
If bred last season why didn’t she get pregnant?
No. Of years barren?
Has she previous lost pregnancies?
What is ideal vulval conformation
Long axis of vulval lips vertical
Labia well opposed
No lesions or discharge
Anus not recessed
How can EVA be transmitted
Respiratory and venereally
What are uterine swabs used for
Culture for endometritis and bacterial venereal pathogens screening
Strict asepsis with guarded swab required
Rectal palpation of oestrus
Broad soft cervix
Large soft uterus
Luteal/dioestrus rectal palpation
Hard narrow cervix
Tonic small uterus
How to follicles appear on ultrasound
Anechoic
How do CLs show on ultrasound
Echogenic
How to CHs appear on ultrasound
Bright white, can be cavitated
What is normal on uterine cytology
Some neutrophils normal
>5 neutrophils per medium power field is abnormal can also see pathogens
What antibiotic should you use for uterine infusion
Penicillins
When should endometrial biopsy be taken and when can’t they
Mid dioestrus best time
Pregnancy and cervical fibrosis prevent biopsies
Pathological changes on endometrial biopsy
Acute inflammation - neutrophils, some eosinophils
Chronic infiltrative inflammation - mononuclear cells
Chronic degenerative changes - layers of fibrous tissue, dilated lymphatics
Categories of endometrial changes
1 - no pathological changes 80-90% foaling rate
2a - mild endometrial changes 50-70% foaling
2b - moderate endometrial changes, decrease fertility 20-50% will foal
3 - severe endometrial changes, uteri incapable of supporting development. Foaling <10%
Uterine endoscopy
Aseptic placement into non-pregnant uterus
Cutting/diathermy can be useful for some treatments
Karyotype
Normal 64XX
63XO - turners syndrome causes small inactive ovaries, small vulva and repro tract, irregular non cyclical oestrus
Thoroughbred management
16h of light from dec first to try and bring into oestrus sooner
Altrenogest to bring into season on withdrawal during the breeding season
How long is the oocyte viable after ovulation
12 hours
Physiology of anoestrus
Ovaries - small and hard with small follicles
Flaccid uterus
Pale and dry vagina
Small closed cervix
Physiology of transitional period
Larger soft follicles grow and regress
Uterus in transition
Vagina pale and dry
Cervix broad and soft
Physiology of oestrus
Ovaries medium size with something palpable follicle/CH
Large oedematous uterus
Moist and hyperaemic uterus
Broad and soft cervix
Physiology of pregnancy
Ovaries medium size at the start getting larger with eCG
Tonic uterus with pregnancy swelling from 21days
Pale and dry vagina
Hard and narrow cervix
Consequences of pregnancy loss
Resorption if embryonic death
Mummification is death with endometrial cups present
Expulsion if after endometrial cups regression
What does persistent endometritis cause
Bacteria/inflammation in uterus when the conceptus enters prevents the mare from staying pregnant due to the hostile environment
What is the problem with abnormal uterine morphology
Difficult to form a placenta so can resorb
Occurs with - chronic endometrial disease, glandular distension, peri glandular fibrosis
What is the problem with low progesterone
Potential pregnancy loss
Inflammatory and stressful situations
can result in this - potentially give progesterone to protect pregnancy if going through a stressful period
What diseases cause foetal abortion
Equine herpes virus
Equine viral arteritis
Placentitis
Systemic infections
Equine infectious anaemia
Non infectious causes of abortion
Multiple conceptuses
Umbilical cord torsion
Uterine torsion
Low progesterone
Stress
Severe malnutrition
What is the incidence of Multiple ovulations in the mare
20%
What is the prevalence of twins at 14 day scan
10%
Why are twins popped
Rarely have a successful outcome as the compete for placental attachment
How are twins dealt with
Abolish whole pregnancy with PG
Manual rupture of small one at day 14/15
Umbilical cord abnormalities
Too long can twist or wrap around part of the foetus causing foetal death
EHV-1 signs
Respiratory tract disease, paralysis, foal disease(uveitis)
Most abortions within 60 days of infection but over 8 months and delivered in membrane
Alpha Herpes viruses
Bovine herpes virus 1 (IBR, IPV)
Equine herpes virus 1 (abortal)
Equine herpes virus 3 (exanthema)
Equine herpes virus 4 (respiratory)
Pseudorabies virus
Canine herpes virus
Feline herpes virus
Gamma herpes viruses
Equine herpes virus 2 (respiratory)
Bovine herpes virus 2 (respiratory)
Alcephine herpes virus (malignant catarrhal fever)
If a mare aborts what should you do
Isolate her and aborted material
If herpes suspected vaccinate
Equine viral arteritis
Respiratory and venereal transmission
Conjunctivitis, focal dermatitis, limb and ventral oedema
Aborted fetuses appear autolyzed
Killed vaccine available (need seronegative pre vaccination and positive post for semen export)
Bacterial/fungal Placentitis
Ascending infection - poor perineal conformation, reduced placental efficiency producing growth retardation
Vulval discharge, mammary changes and abortion
Treatment - antibiotics after C&S with local pessary
What things are associated with still birth
Prolonged parturition
Umbilical cord obstruction in parturition
Premature placental separation
Normal CTUP
Combined thickness uterus and placementa
150-270 days <7mm
271-300 <8mm
301-330 <10mm
331+ < 12mm
What are common abnormalities of cyclicity
Prolonged dioestrus
Erratic oestrus in transitional period
Absent oestrus post partum
Silent oestrus
Uncommon conditions effecting cyclicity
Nymphomania
Granulosa cells tumours
Failure to reach puberty
Cystic ovaries do not occur
What are the 2 causes of absent oestrus post partum (foal heat and subsequent)
Seasonal anoestrus - foaling early in the year, days not long enough to return to cyclicity
Foal shy - mare protective of foal so suppresses behavioural signs
What are the causes of a mare showing foal heat but not returning to cyclicity subsequently
Prolonged dioestrus - ovulate and then have persistent CL (administer PG)
Seasonal anoestrus - early in the year
Signs of granulosa cell tumour
Presentation depends on who to
Can look like colic, theriogenologists see abnormal cyclicity, others as incidental
Reproductively depends on tumour
Oestrogen producing - persistent oestrus
Progesterone producing - persistent anoestrus
Produce androgens - virilization
Treatment for granulosa cell tumour
Ovariectomy
Causes of failure to reach puberty
Normal - extreme training regime prevents development
Abnormal - chromosomal abnormalities - turners syndrome 63XO - bloods for karyotype
What is important about cystic ovaries in mares
They do not occur!
Causes of endometritis in the mare
Poor perineal conformation
Mating induced
Chronic
Long standing with endometrial fibrosis
Factors contributing to endometritis
Poor BCS
Urovagina
Cervicitis
Cervical trauma
Uterine sacculation
Uterine adhesions
Uterine FB
Why do horses get large ovaries
Transitional period
Pregnancy
Prolonged dioestrus
Pseudopregnancy type 2
Lutenised/haemorrhagic follicles
What causes coital exanthema
EHV-3
Key points about EHV-3
Causes coital exanthema
Remains a carrier
Vesicles 5-7 days after coitus transmission from stallion - painful for stallion if infected
Symptomatic treatment only
What tumours commonly appear in the vulva
Melanomas
What are varicose vessels
Originate from lateral vaginal wall of vagina from trauma in previous foalings
Largest in oestrus or pregnancy
Can bleed in mating or partition - may need ligation
Endometrial cysts
More common in older, very common don’t effect fertility but can affect maternal recognition of pregnancy
Look like pregnancies on ultrasound so must be recorded - do not change size/position, frequently lobulated and irregular in outline
Treatment for post mating endometritis
Lavage
Penicillin/streptomycin
Oxytocin
Treatment for chronic endometritis
Prostaglandin
Remove fluid
Dilate cervix
Treat regularly
When does a horse have a pyometra
When the mare stops cycling as develops a long luteal phase and produces prostaglandin as pyometra must have a CL present
What should you make sure field castrations are covered for
Tetanus
Where should you locally desensitize for castration
Intra testicular
Spermatic cord
Skin
Which drugs can be used for field anaesthetia
Xylazine
Ketamine
Guaifenesin
What care do you need to take with donkeys
More difficult to handle
More sensitive to triple drip compared to horses
Less responsive to analgesia - Meloxicam has 1/10th half life to horses
