Qualitative Design and Sampling Flashcards
Participant
“subject” in quantitative studies. makes person in study feel like a partner instead of a guinea pig.
Key informants
person who is in pivotal position to give you the info you need. broad background. lived the experience. not always most important or most educated.
purposive sampling
not random. nonprobability sampling method used in qualitative studies to select a distinct group of individuals that either have lived the experience or have expertise in the event or experience being studied.
snowball sampling
recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants
participant observation
method of collecting data. role of the researcher in qualitative methods when the researcher is not merely an observer but also a participant during data collection.
redundancy
data is saturated. stop collecting at this point
bracketing
a strategy used by qualitative researchers to set aside person interpretations to avoid bias
gatekeeper
person you need to go through to gain access to a site. very people oriented. pay attention to when you have worn out your welcome.
Qualitative Research
What is it?
Research that is directed from a naturalistic paradigm.
Wholistic in nature—tries to capture the whole human experience.
Does not reduce human situation to numbers.
Remains objective and systematic although the process is different than in quantitative studies.
Relies predominantly on conversation and observation to derive data.
Qualitative Research
When is it used in nursing?
Focus on psychosocial issues
Explore, describe, and explain human situations that affect health.
Interpret the meaning of situations on health related issues.
Analyze the complex processes involved in health related issues.
Illustrate previously discovered findings.
Examples:
In terms of purpose of qualitative research
To explore the perception of pain by elderly osteoarthritis patients.
To describe the impact of kidney dialysis on family dynamics.
To explain the origins of “cultural competence” as a required nursing competency.
To interpret the role of depression in adolescent alcohol usage.
To analyze the patterns involved in critical thinking by expert nurses. (how did “they” learn to think that way)
To illustrate the consequences of social network deprivation on family coping.
The Method:
General Process of Qualitative research
Inductive Logic:
examine many specific cases to come find the common thread.
The Method:
General Process of qualitative research
Emergent:
the stories reveal the common threads as data collection progresses.
The Method” General Process of qualitative research
Creative:
while a method is pre-determined, minor changes of direction and tactics can be made to follow-up on potentially fruitful avenues.
General Procedures
Appropriate to purpose (Design, Analysis plan)
Site issues
Interview/observation tools (typical problem with this method is you end up with a huge amount of information)
Analysis issues
Reporting issues
Field Work
The process of obtaining information in a qualitative study.
Most closely associated with ethnographic methods although similar methods are used in many qualitative research traditions.
Separates the researcher’s perspective (etic view) from the participant’s perspective (emic view).
Involves participant observation.
Dimensions of field work
Space
the physical environment or place
Dimensions of field work
Objects
the physical things that are present in the environment.
Dimensions of field work
Feeling
emotions felt and expressed by participants
Dimensions of field work
Actors
the people involved
Dimensions of field work
Acts
single actions people do
Dimensions of field work
Activities
a set of related acts people do
Dimensions of field work
Events
: the set of related activities people carry out
Dimensions of field work
Goals
things people are trying to accomplish
Dimensions of field work
Time
sequencing of events that take place over time as people try to achieve goals.
Stages of Field Work
Pick the setting:
Identify a target group and a place to find them.
Go to setting and examine the safety and whether you can obtain all of your data from that setting.
Stages of Field Work
Establish rapport and trust within setting:
Takes time.
Must show respect, interest, and discretion, honor.
Stages of Field Work
Determine?
type of interaction acceptable to the participants.
Stages of Field Work
Collect and record…
data via well kept notes
Stages of Field Work
Leaving the field
At the appropriate time—hopefully after collecting all needed data but before you wear out your welcome.
Poorly timed departure may impede further attempts to collect data at that setting
Note Taking
Observational
NOT interpretation
Careful observations collected by your five senses.
Just the facts—no interpretation about what the facts mean.
Note taking
Personal
Where data analysis begins
This is your interpretation of the facts.
This is where data analysis is represented—the simultaneous collection/analysis process unique to qualitative studies
Note taking
Methodological
Notes to self on method problems and what needs to be changed
May need a different time of day or different place.
May want to change order of questions or add new ones.
Sources of data
Observation
Uses all five senses to “observe” data
Sources of data
interview
- Highly structured (specific questions in a specific order)
- semi-structured (General questions that need to be addressed but not in any sort of order)
- Non-structured (General lead in questions and then just follow the participant’s lead.)
Sources of data
written sources
records, newspapers, etc
Reliability and design issues
Researcher’s status
If seen by participant as an outsider or powerful person, true view of situation may be hampered.
Reliability and design issues
Participant selection
Participants may not be the best available.
Reliability and design issues
Social conditions
Surrounding environment and societal issues can impede appropriate data collection
Reliability and design issues
Methods
May choose the wrong place, wrong time, wrong questions, etc
validity and design issues
History and maturation
If doing a study over time, people change and the environment changes.
validity and design issues
Observer effects
People may act differently if they are being watched.
validity and design issues
selection and regression
The more participants you have, the more average the responses. OK if you want the average story, but may be a problem for other purposes.
validity and design issues
mortality
Sometimes you need to contact someone for more information and you can’t.
Moved, phone disconnected, died, too afraid to talk with you again, etc.
Specific designs
Historical Case Studies Ethnography Phenomenology Grounded Theory Method
Historical research
purpose
To learn the truth about the past
To explain how the past has impacted the present
To anticipate the future based on historical patterns
historical research
Sources of data
must be eye-witness or authoritative and current to the time in question:
Diaries
Journals
Newspapers
Other factual sources such as early new reels, video’s, voice recordings, notations in family records, court records, etc.
Historical Research Examples
The impact of birth control views espoused by Margaret Sanger in the early 1900’s.
The evolution of the Advanced Practice Nursing Role in the United States.
Lessons learned from the nurse run Loeb Center and implications for the future.
Case Studies:
Intensive exploration of a naturally occurring group or case
Case studies may be:
one person, one family, one nursing unit.
Case study purpose:
provide in-depth analysis of one case to:
Gain insight into current characteristics in a situation.
Obtain background data for little known phenomena.
Explain psycho-social processes involved in complex health situation.
Illustrate generalized statistical findings by applying them to one case.
Case studies must
obtain data from everyone considered part of the “case”
Case study examples
The experience of parental grieving by a parent of a veteran killed in action.
From development of symptoms to death: The progress of preparing to die.
Illustration of transformational leadership in one nursing unit
Ethnography
Derived from anthropology.
A detailed study of the life styles of persons of a particular culture or subculture.
Examine patterns of living and the meaning of those patterns to the people within that culture.
Ethnography may look at:
Ethnic groups or other clearly defined groups such as:
Age groups
Prison inmates
Emergency room registered nurses
ethnography study must focus on:
the common cultural behavior, cultural knowledge, and cultural artifacts
Ethnography
Emic vs Etic
Emic-insider view
Etic- outsider view
ethnography
related methods
ethnoscience
the anthropology of knowledge
ethnography
related methods
ethnonursing
the anthropology of nursing practice
Ethnography Examples
Cultural patterns of health seeking behavior in immigrant Mexican farm workers.
Beliefs of intensive care nurses regarding determination of end of life and organ harvesting.
“Normal” as defined by adolescents with severe emotional disability.
phenomenology
derived from psychology
phenomenology attempts to…
understand the human experience
phenomenology key phrase in the abstract?
“what is it like to live with/through…”
Phenomenology uses participant’s…
perspective of reality and not the perspective of the researcher’s reality
Phenomenology hopes to find…
themes on the reasons, feelings, and thoughts of the individuals experiencing the phenomena
examples of phenomenology
What is it like to live with cystic fibrosis?
What is it like to live with guilt following the accidental death of a sibling?
What is it like to live through a major disaster such as Hurricane Sandy?
Grounded theory
derived from sociology
grounded theory looks for
the underlying social process.
“What is the process of . . . .?”
Grounded theory also…
Examines social pressures through symbolic interactionism.
Symbolic interactionism looks at symbols used during human interactions such as written and spoken words. (lots of direct quotes are used)
Uses participant’s own words to explain the process.
The participant’s words (symbols) have useful meaning only in the present tense and only when shared by others experiencing the same situation.
The specific purpose of the study is to create a new theory from the derived meaning of the symbols. (Examines the literature AFTER developing the theory)
Both a type of research and a method of data analysis.
Examples of grounded theory
Becoming an alcoholic: The process of losing self.
The development of a self-perception as “mother” in pregnant adolescent females.
The role of regret in chronic grief.
Qualitative sample
nonrandom
Does not rely on any type of math to determine who will be chosen for the sample.
qualitative sample
rich in substance
Need to talk to people who can give very clear, complete, articulate accounts of the chosen subject.
Steps of Qualitative Sampling
volunteer
Find the best people to volunteer to be in the study.
Must consult many experts and local people to find participants.
This may take much time and effort on the part of the researcher
Steps of Qualitative Sampling
Snowball
Only until you hit redundancy
Ask your volunteers if they know anyone else who might be interested in the study.
Need to be sure the new participants are also good sources of data.
Steps of Qualitative Sampling
Redundancy
Finish collecting data when you are hearing no new information. (You keep hearing the same story again and again.)
This means there is no pre-set number of participants. One keeps collecting data until it seems fruitless to collect any more data.
Sampling strategies:
many different strategies can be applied depending on the purpose and question
sampling strategies:
maximum variance
- Looking for as much diversity as possible in your people.
- Example: newly diagnosed and people with long term diabetes (both men and women, all ages) to examine experience of chronic illness.
sampling strategies
homogeneous
- Looking for people with very similar experiences
* Example: only newly diagnosed young adult women with diabetes to examine feelings about chronic illness.
sampling strategies
extreme/variant case
- interested in something rare, unusal. extreme end. want to find out how they got there, how survived.
- Case that exemplify the outer most experience
- Example: person who survived severe airline accident with no physical injury to examine post traumatic stress.
More sampling strategies
intensity
• Cases obtained where the greatest concentration exists of the situation that’s being studied.
more sampling strategies
intensity example
Obtain sample for homeless study from St. Vincent de Paul’s.
More sampling strategies
typical case
• Common stories
More sampling strategies
typical case example
Just want average, normal, typical folks who are involved in this situation.
more sampling strategies
theory based
- Once the theory starts to emerge, pick people who might exemplify the theory.
- Must also look for people who would refute the theory
more sampling strategies
theory based example
Theory developed says kinship is important to parenting skills, so look specifically at people who have strong kinship groups
