Psychology and Sociology: Chapter 8 Flashcards
Michelangelo Phenomenon
the concept of self is made up of both the intrapersonal self, the ideas an individual has regarding his or her own abilities, traits, and beliefs, and the interpersonal self, the manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self
Social action
-actions and behaviors that individuals are performing or modulating because others are around
-Considers just the individual that is surrounded by others
Social Facilitation
-People tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
-Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation: being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks
Deindividualization
-Describes the loss of one’s self-awareness in a group setting and the associated adoption of a mere group oriented identity (mob mentality)
-Antinormative behavior: behavior not socially acceptable in most social circumstances; behavior “against the norm”
Bystander Effect
Observed phenomenon that occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to assist those who are in perceived need when other people are present
Social Loafing
-Refers to the tendency of individuals to reduce effort when in a group setting
-This phenomenon may apply in many contexts: physical effort, such as carrying a heavy object; mental effort, such as working on a group project; or initiative, such as coming up with solution to a problem
Peer pressure
-refers to the social influence placed on an individual by one’s peers
-Identity shift effect: when an individual’s state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group
-Cognitive dissonance: the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
-Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group
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Group Polarization
-Describes the tendency for groups to collaboratively make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group
-Risky shift: initial ideas tend not to be extreme, but that through discussion within a group, these ideas tend to become more and more extreme
-Choice shift: groups that shift towards caution
Groupthink
-Refers to a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision
-Similar patterns of thinking, in which a group arrives at a common (but often extreme) consensus also underlie many cultural phenomena, including riots, fads, and mass hysteria
Illusion of invulnerability (groupthink)
members encourage risks, ignore possible pitfalls and are too optimistic
Collective rationalization (groupthink)
members ignore expressed concerns about group approved ideas
Illusion of morality (groupthink)
members believe ideas produced by the group are morally and ethically correct, disregarding evidence to the contrary
Excessive Stereotyping (groupthink)
members construct stereotypes of those expressing outside opinions
Pressure for conformity (groupthink)
members feel pressured not to express opinions that disagree with the group, and view opposition as disloyal
Self-censorship (groupthink)
members withhold ideas and opinions that disagree with the group
Illusion of unanimity
members believe the decisions and judgments of the group to be without disagreement, even if it does exist
Mindguards (groupthink)
some members may decide to take on a role protecting the group against opposing views
Fads
behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community
Mass Hysteria
refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society
Culture
-Can be defined as the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people
-Learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them
Culture shock
when traveling outside of one’s own society and culture differences seem dramatic
Assimilation
process by which an individual’s or group’s behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group
4 factors to assess the completeness of assimilation
Socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, intermarriage
Ethnic enclaves
-locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity
-can slow assimilation
Multiculturalism
communities or societies containing multiple cultures or ethnic groups
Subcultures
refer to groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
Counterculture
the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
Socialization
the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
Cultural transmission/cultural learning
beliefs, customs, and cultural norms are passed down from one generation to another within a society
Cultural diffusion
spread of norms, customs, and beliefs from one culture to another
Primary socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of parents and other adults
Secondary socialization
-process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society
-Occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments
Anticipatory socialization
process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships
Resocialization
process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones, typically through intensive retraining, and can have positive or negative connotations
Norms
Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior
Mores
widely observed social norms
Social control
rules that provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups and serve to control members of society
Sanctions
penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior
Formal sanctions
enforced by formal social institutions like governments or employers and can include receiving a promotion or a jail sentence
Informal sanctions
enforced by social groups; might include being allowed to sit at a particular table in the school cafeteria or exclusion form a social group
Taboo
socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible
Folkways
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions
Agents of socialization
Any part of society that is important when learning social norms and values
Popular culture
-common trends and beliefs prevalent at a given point in time
-Heavily influenced by the media
-Important agent of socialization
Deviance
refers to any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society
Social stigma
the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society
Labeling theory
posits that the labels given to a person affect not only how others respond to that person, but also affect that person’s self-image
Role engulfment
internalizing a label and assuming the role implied by the label may lead to the assumed role taking over a person’s identity
Differential association theory
-deviance, particularly criminal behavior, can be learned through interactions with others
-Intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behaviors lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him or herself
Strain theory
-attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and societal structure
-The American dream is considered a desirable social goal, but the structure of society is unable to guarantee the education and opportunity needed to achieve this goal to all citizens
Conformity
Matching one’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group or societal norms
Normative conformity
the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
Internalization
changing one’s behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
Identification
the outward acceptance of others’ ideas without personally taking on these ideas
Compliance
A change in behavior based on a direct request
Foot-in-the-door technique (compliance)
begins with a small request, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made
Door-in-the-face technique (compliance)
a large request is made at first and, if refused, a second, smaller request is made
Lowball technique (compliance)
the requestor will get an initial commitment form an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment
That’s-not-all technique (compliance)
an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected
Obedience
Changing one’s behavior in response to a direct order or expectation expressed by an authority figure
Social cognition
focuses on the way in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
Attitude
the expression of positive or negative feeling toward a person, place, thing, or scenario
Affective component of attitude
refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude
Behavioral component of attitude
the way a person acts with respect to something
Cognitive component of attitude
the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components
Functional attitudes theory
attitudes serve four functions
-Knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior
-Ego expression: allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity
-Adaptation: the idea that expressed socially acceptable attitudes will lead to acceptance
-Ego defense: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong
Learning theory
-Posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning
-direct contact, direct instruction, others attitudes
Elaboration likelihood model
A theory of attitude formation and attitude change that separates individuals on a continuum based on how they process persuasive information
Central route processing (elaboration likelihood model)
deep thinking about information in order to draw conclusions or make decisions
Central route persuasion (elaboration likelihood model)
attempting to influence attitudes by using information that appeals to central route processing
Peripheral route processing (elaboration likelihood model)
focus on superficial details in order to determine something
Peripheral route of persuasion (elaboration likelihood model)
attempting to influence attitudes appeal to peripheral route processing
Social cognitive theory
-Postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
-Behavior is not learned by trial and error but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others
