Psychology and Sociology: Chapter 10 Flashcards
Interpersonal attraction
individuals liking each other
Self-disclosure
sharing one’s fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgmental empathy
Reciprocal liking
phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them
Mere exposure effect or familiarity effect
the tendency for people to prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
Aggression
a behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance
Parts of the brain contributing to violent behavior
-Amygdala: part of the brain responsible for associating stimuli and their corresponding rewards or punishments
-Aggression is under hormonal control; higher levels of testosterone have been linked to more aggressive behavior in both males and females
Cognitive neoassociation model
we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain
Attachment
An emotional bond between a caregiver and a child that begins to develop during infancy
Secure attachment
Is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that her or she has a secure base to return to
Insecure attachment
children with avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized attachment which lead to deficits in social skills
Avoidant attachment
-Results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distress child
-Given the choice, these children will show no preference between a stranger and a caregiver
Ambivalent attachment
-Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully
-Child is unable to form a secure base because he or she cannot consistently rely on the caregiver’s response
-Anxious-ambivalent attachment: child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver
Disorganized attachment
-Children show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence, but instead can show a mix of different behaviors
-Often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver
Social support
-The perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network
-Can be divided into many different categories: emotional, esteem, material, informational, and a network support
Sensation of hunger
-controlled by the hypothalamus
-The lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger, while the ventromedial hypothalamus responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety
Altruism
A form of helping behavior in which the individual’s intent is to benefit another at some cost to the self
Empathy
the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and it is thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior
Empathy-Altruism hypothesis
one individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for another person, regardless of the cost
Game theory
Attempts to explain decision-making behavior
4 Possible outcomes for the Hawk-Dove Game
-Altruism: the donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to him- or herself
-Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating
-Spite: both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted
-Selfishness: the donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted
Inclusive fitness
-A measure of an organism’s success in the population
-Based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others
Social perception
provides the tools to make judgements and impressions regarding other people
Components of social perception
-Perceiver: influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state
-Target: refers to the person about which the perception is made
-Situation
Impression bias
-Focuses on our selection of cues to form interpretations of others that are consistent over time
Primary effect (impression bias)
the idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
Recency effect (impression bias)
it is actually the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions
Reliance on central traits (impression bias)
individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
Implicit personality theory (impression bias)
there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
Stereotyping
making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed
Halo effect
-a cognitive bias in which judgements about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one’s overall impression of the individual
-It is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person
Just-world hypothesis
In a so-called just world, good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people; noble actions are rewarded and evil actions are punished
Self-serving bias
Refers to the fact that individuals credit their own successes to internal factors and blame their failures on external factors
Self-enhancement
focuses on the need to maintain self-worth, which can be accomplished in part by the self-serving bias
Self-verification
suggest people will seek the companionship of others who see them as they see themselves, thereby validating a person’s self-serving bias
Attribution theory
Describes how individuals infer the causes of other people’s behavior
Dispositional (internal) attributions
those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics
Situational (external) attributions
those that related to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure
Consistency cues
refer to the behavior with the motives of the person
Consensus cues
relate to the extent to which a person’s behavior differs from others
Distinctiveness cues
refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios
Correspondent inference theory
-focuses on the intentionality of other’s behavior
-When an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we tend to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution
Fundamental attribution error
Posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when judging the actions of others
Attribute substitution
Occurs when individuals make judgements that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic
Cultural attribution
The type of culture an individual belongs to plays a major role in the types of attributions the individuals makes
Stereotypes
-refer to the expectations, impressions, and opinions about the characteristics of members of a group
-Stereotypes occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group in individuals
Stereotype content model
-attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions; warmth and competence
-Warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources
-Competent groups are those that have high status within society
Paternalistic stereotypes
high warmth, low competence; the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored
Contemptuous stereotypes
low warmth, low competence; the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger
Envious stereotypes
low warmth, high competence; the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust
Admiration stereotypes
high warmth, high competence; the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings
Stereotype threat
In some social situations, a person might be concerned or anxious about inadvertently confirming a negative stereotype about their social group
Prejudice
-An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity
Ethnocentrism
Refers to the practice of making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one’s own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion
Cultural relativism
the recognition that social groups and cultures should be studies on their own terms
Discrimination
Occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others
Individual discrimination
refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group
Institutional discrimination
refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution
