Psychology and Sociology: Chapter 4 Flashcards
Paivio’s Dual-coding theory
-both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information
-Coding information two different ways builds redundancy and increases the change that the information can be retrieved and used effectively when cued
4 Key Components of the information processing model
-Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
-Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
-Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
-Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
Lev Vygotsky
-prominent educational psychologist
-Proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture
-Includes interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language
Fluid intelligence
consists of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods
Crystallized intelligence
related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural
Mental set
tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Types of problem solving
-Trial and error
-Algorithm
-Deductive (top down) reasoning: Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
-Inductive (bottom up) reasoning: Seeks to create a theory via generalizations; Starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called “rules of thumb”
Availability heuristic
a heuristic used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind
Representative heuristic
involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
Base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Disconfirmation Principle
the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
Confirmation bias
the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them
Overconfidence
a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
Hindsight bias
the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened
Belief perseverance
refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Intuition
-Can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
-Often developed from experience
Howard Garner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Eight defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist
Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of human intelligence
-Analytical intelligence: involves the ability to evaluate and reason
-Creative intelligence: ability to solve problem using novel methods
-Practical intelligence: involves dealing with everyday problems at home or work
The theory of emotional intelligence
-The ability to express and perceive emotions in ourselves and others
-The ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions
-The ability to regulate our emotions
-Awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions
Consciousness
One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world
Alertness
-A state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
-perceive, process, access, and verbalize information
-Physiological arousal: characterized by physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and so on
-Reticular formation: a neural structure located in the brainstem to keep the cortex awake and alert
Attention
Refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or sensorium
Selective attention
-Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
-Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
-More of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background
