Psychology and Sociology: Chapter 4

Question 1

Paivio’s Dual-coding theory

Answer 1

-both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information
-Coding information two different ways builds redundancy and increases the change that the information can be retrieved and used effectively when cued

Question 2

4 Key Components of the information processing model

Answer 2

-Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
-Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
-Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
-Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Question 3

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 3

-prominent educational psychologist
-Proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture
-Includes interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language

Question 4

Fluid intelligence

Answer 4

consists of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods

Question 5

Crystallized intelligence

Answer 5

related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural

Question 6

Mental set

Answer 6

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

Question 7

Functional fixedness

Answer 7

the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Question 8

Types of problem solving

Answer 8

-Trial and error
-Algorithm
-Deductive (top down) reasoning: Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
-Inductive (bottom up) reasoning: Seeks to create a theory via generalizations; Starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them

Question 9

Heuristics

Answer 9

Simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called “rules of thumb”

Question 10

Availability heuristic

Answer 10

a heuristic used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind

Question 11

Representative heuristic

Answer 11

involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

Question 12

Base rate fallacy

Answer 12

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Question 13

Disconfirmation Principle

Answer 13

the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

Question 14

Confirmation bias

Answer 14

the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

Question 15

Overconfidence

Answer 15

a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

Question 16

Hindsight bias

Answer 16

the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened

Question 17

Belief perseverance

Answer 17

refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Question 18

Intuition

Answer 18

-Can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
-Often developed from experience

Question 19

Howard Garner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 19

Eight defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist

Question 20

Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of human intelligence

Answer 20

-Analytical intelligence: involves the ability to evaluate and reason
-Creative intelligence: ability to solve problem using novel methods
-Practical intelligence: involves dealing with everyday problems at home or work

Question 21

The theory of emotional intelligence

Answer 21

-The ability to express and perceive emotions in ourselves and others
-The ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions
-The ability to regulate our emotions
-Awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions

Question 22

Consciousness

Answer 22

One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world

Question 23

Alertness

Answer 23

-A state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
-perceive, process, access, and verbalize information
-Physiological arousal: characterized by physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and so on
-Reticular formation: a neural structure located in the brainstem to keep the cortex awake and alert

Question 24

Attention

Answer 24

Refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or sensorium

Question 25

Selective attention

Answer 25

-Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
-Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
-More of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background