Psychological Skills II Flashcards
Psychological Skills Training (Weinberg & Gould, 2015, pp.248)
“Systematic and consistent
practice of mental or psychological
skills for the purpose of enhancing
performance, increasing
enjoyment, or achieving greater
sport and physical activity self satisfaction”
Goal Setting (Locke &
Latham, 1985)
“the aim or objective of
something that we are
trying to obtain”
Outcome Goals
Intentions relative to performance of others involved in an activity
Winning a race
Beating a Teammates
Performance Goals
Levels personal achievement & self-referenced
- Is subjective
- Running a race in a certain time
- Jump a certain distance
Process Goals
Self referenced but focus on process rather then product of performance
- Train four times a week
- Wake up at 7am for training
Smarter Goals
SMARTER goals
- Specific
- What is it going to focus on
- Measureable
- How will you know will it be achieved
- Actioned
- What are you gonna do
- Realistic
- How realistic could it be>
- Time based
- how long will it take
- Evaluate
- How successful were they
- Reset
- Once achieved, start and fresh
- Right you made the time earlier than expected means we werent as realistic but that’s fine lets see can we go further and vice versa
How to tell if the effect size is important
Effect size
- Small effect = 0.2
- Medium Effect = 0.5
- Large Effect = 0.8
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995): Goal Specificity
SA, SR & G
Goal Specificity
- Specific Absolute Goals = 0.93
- Very specific goals
- Specific Relative Goals = 0.27
- Specific to the sport but relative
- Hit around 2 minutes and you should be fine
- Specific to the sport but relative
- General do your best = 0.38
- Athletes told “do your best” often spontaneously set specific goals” (Weinberg & Weigand, 1993
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995) Difficulty
eDm
- Easy = 0.07
- Moderate = 0.53
- Difficult = 0.41
- easy goals had little effect size but moderate foals had a medium effect on performance
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995) Long term and Short term goals
- Short term
- 0.38
- Achieving short term goals increases self-efficacy (confidence)
- 0.38
- Long Term 0.19
- Combined 0.48
- when combined long term and short term goals increase an athletes effectivenesss
- “Four years is a long time and there’s lots of stepping stones along the way… I’m very excited to set some new goals” –Dame Sarah
Storey, 14 Paralympic gold medals
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995) Publication of goals
- Public goals: 0.79
- Those who make their goals public will be likely to achieve them
- Private Goals: 0.06
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995): involvement within the goal setting process
Involve performer in goal setting process
- Assigned by a coach: 0.30
- Co-operative (with a coach) goals 0.62
- Participant set: 0.49
Meta analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995) Focus on performance
and/or process rather than outcome
process outcomes are worse than performance outocmes but thats are worse than outcomes
Public Goal setting intervention (Ward & Carnes, 2002): Intervention
Self-set + public posting of performance goals in 5
College line-backers
Public Goal setting intervention (Ward & Carnes, 2002): 3 elements of performance in rugby
- Reads
- Positioning for pass or runs
- Drops
- correct responses to oposistion to line up
- Tackles
- to stop progress
Public Goal setting intervention (Ward & Carnes, 2002): rapid improvement
- Base line performance (before goal setting): 70%
- Post intervention: 95%
How do goals work
How do goals work
- To motivate
- To create a plan
- To monitor progress
Task success
- perceptions of competence self referenced.
- Meeting the demands of the task, exerting effort and improving one’s skill level
Ego Success
Ego
- interest in demonstrating superior competence.
Better than others or surpass normative standards
Adaptive outcomes
Adaptive Outcomes
- Engaging in training
- Giving best effort in training and competition
- Exhibitiing persistence even when things are not going well
- Selecting optimally challenging activities and opponents
- performin to potential consistentlu
- Continually working on improvement
Mental Rehersal
encompasses a variety of mental techniques athletes &
exercises employ such as observation and self-talk
Imagery
internally experiencing a situation that mimics real experience without experiencing the real thing
Maladaptive outcomes
Maladaptive Outcomes
- When focused on demonstrating superiroty when there are doubts over abuilty
- hold back in effort and training
- Experiences performance impairment as a result of doubts as to whether they are good enough
- Selects challenges that are too difficult or too easy
- Withdraw from sport as a result of feeling incompetent
Imagery is not imagery
Not visualisation
- implies that imagery only contain a visual component
- multiple sensory modalities involved
Effectiveness of imagery (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durschi, 1990): Anecdotal Reports
Anecdotal reports
- 100% Sport Psychs & 90% athletes use imagery (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durschi, 1990)
- 97% believe helped performance
- 84% Olympic coaches used it in training & 20% all the time
Effectiveness of imagery (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durschi, 1990): Imagery Benefits
Positive effects of imagery on performance enhancement & other psychological variables such as confidence and coping with anxiety (e.g., Evans, Jones, & Mullen, 2004; Post, Muncie, & Simpson, 2012)
99% of 235 athletes report vivid use of imagery (Orlick & Partington, 1988)
Beneficial effects of imagery greater for “cognitive” than “physical” tasks (Feltz & Landers, 1983)
When does Imagery occur?
- Majority occurs in practice and competition
- Before
- During
- After
- Consistently used more frequently in competition (Munroe, et al., 2000)
- Injury rehabilitation
- Occasions more focus on motivation than rehearsal of exercise
- Underused after practice
Effectiveness of imagery (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durschi, 1990): Elite athletes
Elite athlete more proficient using imagery then non-elite athletes (Murphy, 1994)
- Elite athletes are able to imagine a performance as they know the fear, they know the feelings
- National athletes use imagery more than regional and recreational athletes (Cumming & Hall, 2002)
How goals influence performance - Effort Mobilisation
this is still needed by the athlete and may not be achieve by goal setting alone
How goals influence performance - Direct attention
– improve focus and gives meaning to training and competition
How goals influence performance - Persistence
the importance of the goal to the athlete drives this influence
How goals influence performance - Development of learning new strategies
the above will lead the athlete to test new strategies and ways of achieving their goals
Why is imagery used
WHAT the person images
Muscles feeling loose
What is the function of imagery
Why the person images
To feel relaxed
Two functions
Cognitive & Motivational
Oriented towards general or specific behaviours
Cognitive Specific behaviour
- Skills
- Imaging perofrming on the balance beam successfully
Motivational Specific behaviours
- Goal-oriented responses
- Imaging oneself winning an event and receiving a medal
Motivational General Behaviours
- Arousal
- including relaxation by imaging a quiet place
- General
- “I imagine the stress and anxiety
associate with competing” - Mastery
- “I imagine myself appearing selfconfident in front of opponents
Cognitive General Behaviours
- Strategy
- Imaging carrying out a strategy to win a competition
What do Athletes Image: Content
Imagery of surrounding in which athlete competes
- Venues
- Spectators
What do Athletes Image: Nature of Imagery
- Positive Imagery
- most often reported during practices and pre-competition
- Negative Imagery
- most often report during competition
What do Athletes image: Types of imagery
Types of Imagery
- Visual Imagery
- Auditory Imagery
- Gustatory Imagery
- Tactile Imagery
- Offactory imagery
Imagery Perspectivce: Kinaesthtic imagery
- cognitive re-creation of the feeling of movements.
Imagery Perspectives: Visual Imagery
mental imagery that involves the sense of having
“pictures” in the mind
- Internal visual Imagery
- Viewing scenario through own eyes as if performing the movement (1st person)
- External Visual Imagery
- Viewing the scenario from the perspective of an external observer (3rd person)
Factors Influencing Effectiveness: Nature of the Task
Tasks involving mostly cognitive components (decision making & perception) greatest positive benefits from imagery
Factors Influencing Effectiveness: Skill level of the Performer
Both novice (help learn skills) and experienced athletes (use more)
Factors Influencing Effectiveness: Imagery Ability
Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire -2 (VMIQ-2)
Factors Influencing Effectiveness: Using imagery along with physical practine
Mental practice does not improve performance more than no physical practice
Factors Influencing Effectiveness: Personality
Only study to focus on personality and imagery – Narcissism (Roberts, et al., 2010)
- Results – narcissists use external imagery had greater increases in performance then those who used internal imagery
- external imagery allowed narcissists to fuel their focus on themselves
- external perspective allowed them to actually see themselves performing.
How Imagery works
Generate information from memory that is essentially the same as actual experience
Imagery Psychoneuromuscular theory
- Imagery produces similar neuromuscular activity to the actual movement (Carpenter, 1984)
- Imagined arm movements produced small muscular contractions (Jackson, 1931)
- EMG activity greatest when imagining skiing over rough sections of course (Suinn, 1976)
- Unclear whether the activity is muscle specific
- Predicts that imagery should benefit ‘physical’ tasks more than ‘cognitive’ ones
Imagery: Symbolic Learning Theory
- Proposes that imagery generates & strengthens a ‘mental blueprint’ of the required action
- Enable rehearsal of cognitive aspects of a skill (e.g. strategy, decision making)
- Evidence
- Beneficial effect of mental practice are greater for cognitive than motor tasks
- Imagery involves the same neural pathways as actual perception
Imagery: Bioinformational Theory
- Imagery instructions that include response propositions generate stronger responses (Cumming et al., 2007)
- Image: functionally organised set of propositions stored in the brain
- Stimulus propositions
- Content of the scene to be imaged
- Response Propositions
- Verbal, motor, physiological, emotional responses to the scene
- Stimulus propositions
Uses of Imagery
Uses of imagery
- Improve concentration
- Enhance motivation
- Build Confidence
- Control emotional responses
- Control emotional responses
- Acquire, practice and correct sport skills
- Most effective when using multiple senses
- Most effect when including stimulus and response propositions
- Effectiveness may be mediated by
imagery ability
- Acquire and practice strategy
- prepare for competition
- cope with pain and injury
- solve probles
