Psychological factors

Question 1

What is achievement motivation?

Answer 1

How much desire a player has to keep on trying to succeed.
Drive to succeed minus the fear of failure.
It depends on the interaction of personality and situation.

Question 2

What is NACH behaviour?

Answer 2

Need to achieve, Atkinson and McClelland state these characteristics:
They welcome competition, take risks, are very confident, task persistent, attribute success internally (success is to responsibility of player), and welcome feedback and evaluation.
They base their actions on seeking pride and satisfaction from performance.

Question 3

What is NAF behaviour?

Answer 3

Need to avoid failure.
They give up easily, do not like feedback or evaluation, take easy options, avoid 50/50 situations in terms of winning, and lack confidence.

Question 4

What determines NACH NAF behaviour?

Answer 4

Some performer will have the personality of NACH, which is innate or developed.
Those with the trait of approaching competition will try hard in most situations.

Question 5

How does the situation determine NACH NAF behaviour?

Answer 5

An easy task will probably be completed successfully, but will offer little incentive value or pride. This approach would be adopted by NAF persons.
A difficult task may not be completed successfully, but if success is achieved there is a lot of pride and satisfaction. This might be adopted by NACH persons.

Question 6

How do you develop NACH?

Answer 6

Reinforcement through praise and rewards.
Attribute success internally - the coach should say any success achieved was down to something the player has responsibility for.
Allow success through easier tasks and drills.
Improve confidence.
Goal setting so satisfaction is gained from achieving it.

Question 7

What is achievement goal theory?

Answer 7

Motivation and task persistence depend on the type of goal set by the performer and how they measure success.
The performer will also consider their perceived level of ability when evaluating goals.

Question 8

What is confidence?

Answer 8

A belief in the ability to master a task.
More confident people tend to try harder and take more risks.
They are also likely to show approach behaviour, and are more likely to win.

Question 9

How does confidence vary?

Answer 9

It depends on experience, personality and situation.
More [positive] experience means they are more likely to think they are going to win in another situation.

Question 10

What is trait confidence?

Answer 10

A consistent level of confidence is shown in most situations, where they are happy to take part and anxiety is low.
They have a belief in their ability to do well in a range of sports.

Question 11

What is state confidence?

Answer 11

A specific situation e.g. penalty, where the confidence may be temporary and can vary on the interaction of the influence of experience and personality.
A belief in their ability to master a specific sporting moment.

Question 12

What is the Vealey model of sports confidence?

Answer 12

Vealey looked at the influence of trait and state confidence, the situation and the competitive orientation of the performer.
Competitive orientation is how much a performer is drawn to competitive situations.

Question 13

What is an objective sporting situation?

Answer 13

The performance takes into account the situation.
Vealey suggested that confidence in one area of sport could be used to improve confidence in a different sporting activity.
Suggested that trait and state confidence combined to produce a level of confidence in the objective sporting situation.

Question 14

How does the objective sporting situation vary?

Answer 14

If a skill has been used successfully in the past, then both trait and state confidence would be high.
It also looks at the conditions that the skill was performed in.
It could have been in front of a crowd or a close score - the pressure was on.

Question 15

What is the subjective outcome?

Answer 15

The athlete evaluates the outcome of the skill in performance.
This may lead to improved confidence in future, and may go on to develop competitive orientation, so will try hard in most situations, and develop approach behaviour.
If the judgment is bad, then confidence and competitive orientation decrease.

Question 16

What is Bandura self-efficiacy theory?

Answer 16

Looked at self-confidence in any one situation and that confidence could vary from situation and moment to moment.
The belief to master a specific sporting situation.

Question 17

How does personal accomplishments affect self-efficacy?

Answer 17

Self-efficacy is influenced by past experiences.
A team that won 6-0 in the league would feel confident beating the same team again in the cup.
It is enhanced if the performed also enjoyed the experience.

Question 18

How does vicarious experience affect self-efficacy?

Answer 18

Watching others do the same task and being successful.
Enhanced if the models are perceived to have similar ability to the performer.

Question 19

How does verbal persuasion affect self-efficacy?

Answer 19

Reinforcement and encouragement gives the performer a real incentive and confidence to repeat the successful attempt.
This is made more successful if it comes from someone in high esteem - significant others.

Question 20

How does emotional arousal affect self-efficacy?

Answer 20

Keeping calm and maintaining control when close to a big win is essential to good performance.
These situations cause an increase in arousal.
The perception of the arousal and dealing with it get better results.

Question 21

How do you increase confidence?

Answer 21

Control arousal with stress management techniques.
Give an accurate demonstration by a role model.
Point out past successful performances.
Give support and encouragement.
Allow success in training.
Set attainable goals.
Attribute success internally.
Use mental practice.

Question 22

What is the home field advantage?

Answer 22

The influence of a home crowd can increase confidence and motivation for the home team.
The not having to travel and familiarity of the home environment can increase success.
They may have more drive, assertion, and correct choice of response.
Social facilitation may occur.
The away team may have increased anxiety with hostile chanting.
This leads to worse performance, and social inhibition.

Question 23

What is the home field disadvantage?

Answer 23

The home crowd could cause the home team to crack under the increased pressure and cause the catastrophe effect - dramatic reduction in performance.
The more important the game, the less likely the home team is to win.

Question 24

What is a leader?

Answer 24

Someone who has influence in helping others to achieve their goals.

Question 25

What are the types of leader?

Answer 25

Prescribed leader: Appointed from outside the group, often because the group might want to learn new methods and ideas.
Emergent leader: appointed from within the group.

Question 26

What are the qualities of a leader?

Answer 26

Charismatic, good communication, empathy, experience, inspirational, confidence and organisational skills.

Question 27

What is the autocratic approach of leadership?

Answer 27

The autrocratic and task-orientated style is where the leader makes all the decisions and dictates instructions to the group.
The concern is to get results and reach targets.
The coach needs to stay present and maintain contact throughout.

Question 28

What is the democratic style of leadership?

Answer 28

The democratic and person-orientated style is where the coach adopts a more sympathetic approach and seeks the groups opinion in making decisions.
They may use empathy.
The group usually continues to work even when the coach is not present.

Question 29

What is the laissez faire style of leadership?

Answer 29

The leader does very little.
The manager might just tell the players what they want and then leave them to it.
There is danger that less motivated players will stop working if they are left alone.

Question 30

What is Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership?

Answer 30

Suggested the autocratic style is best used in opposite situations - when everything is good (most favourable) and when everything is bad (least favourable).
In between, is the moderately favourable situation and a person-orientated style is best used.

Question 31

What is the most favourable situation?

Answer 31

The leader has respect, the group has good support, high ability and high motivation.
The task is clear to the team, and there is harmony between leader and group.

Question 32

What is the moderately favourable situation?

Answer 32

There is a need or preference for consulation within a group.
Motivation is moderate, and reasonable ability.
There is limited support.

Question 33

What is the least favourable situation?

Answer 33

There may be hostility between members, and little respect for the leader.
The group is low ability and low motivation.
The leader is weak, the task is unclear and the members do not support each other.

Question 34

What is Chelladuai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership?

Answer 34

Suggested that the more the leader used a style that met the requirements of the situation and needs of the group, the more satisfaction would be gained from performance.

Question 35

How does the situation affect leadership?

Answer 35

Depends on the type of task being performed - a team game might need a different approach to an individual.
A difficult task might need more time to offer an explanation.
An efficient approach might be needed when there is limited time.
A large group might require an authoritarian approach to maintain control.
In a dangerous situation, an autocratic approach might be needed to ensure intructions are given.

Question 36

How do the group features affect leadership?

Answer 36

In a group of women, empathy and consultation might be better than an authoritarian used for men.
In an able group, the coach can offer flexibility and allow them to use their experiences.
An older group might have some experience and knowledge to add to a discussion.

Question 37

What are the types of leadership behaviour?

Answer 37

The required behaviour is what the situation demands.
The actual behaviour may be chosen to match the situation and group demands.
The preferred behaviour is what the group prefer.

Question 38

What is stress?

Answer 38

A negative response of the body to a threat, causing anxiety.

Question 39

What is eustress?

Answer 39

A positive response of the body to a threat.
For example, at the end of the game when you realise the score is in your favour, euphoria may be experienced that boosts confidence and satisfaction.

Question 40

What are stressors?

Answer 40

The cause of stress:
Injury
Playing an important match
Playing against really good opponents
Playing for an important reward
Fear of failure, due to pressure of being watched, or the coach, or own expectations.

Question 41

What is cognitive stress?

Answer 41

Psychological, brings negative thoughts and feelings - the irrational thinking of the inability to cope with the demands of the situation.

Question 42

What is attentional narrowing?

Answer 42

As arousal and anxiety increase, the ability to take in information or cues is reduced, so information may be missed.
The player may lose performance level, and worry further about letting the coach down.

Question 43

What is somatic stress?

Answer 43

Physiological response of the body to stress.
Increased heart rate, sweating, nausea, and muscular tension - this can cause an inaccurate or weak attempt at a skill.

Question 44

What is thought stopping?

Answer 44

Using a learned action or trigger to remove negative thoughts.
A rehearsed action linked to the negative thought to redirect attention.

Question 45

What is positive self-talk?

Answer 45

Replacing negative thoughts with positive ones.
Can also be used to help focus on a tactic or instruction from the coach to overcome a weakness or bad habit.

Question 46

What is imagery?

Answer 46

Recreating a successful image of the action from a past successful performance.
Can recall the feel of the movement in the mind, as well as the emotions associated with the successful action.
Or, to avoid stress by imagining a calm place.

Question 47

What is visualisation?

Answer 47

Uses a mental image of the skill, perfected during training.
Can visualise the feelings of pressure when practising and overcome them, so in competition they are confident to deal with them.

Question 48

What is mental rehearsal?

Answer 48

Going over the movements in the mind before the action takes place.
Especially before a sequence of skills, so they are less likely to forget the order of moves, and stress is reduced.

Question 49

What is attentional control?

Answer 49

Easterbrook - The effect of emotion on cue utilisation suggested that the ability to take in information is directly linked to levels of arousal.

Question 50

How is attentional wastage reduced?

Answer 50

The performer can control the style of attention:
Broad - a number of cues identified.
Narrow - one or two cues focused on.
Internal - information used from within the performer.
External - information drawn from the environment.
If the correct style is chosen at the right time, stress is reduced, and performance enhanced.

Question 51

What is psychological skills training?

Answer 51

Train and practise using cognitive methods.
A sports psychologist can guide players though them.

Question 52

What is biofeedback?

Answer 52

Using a measuring device to help recognise physical changes due to stress.
Eventually able to use without the device.
Can use a heart rate monitor, the galvanic skin response that measures increases in electrical activity when sweating, or electromyography - measures muscular tension with electrodes taped to the skin.

Question 53

What is progressive muscle relaxation?

Answer 53

Alternating between a state of tension in a group of muscles to a state of relaxation in the same muscles.
Work the arms, shoulders, and legs first, then the abdominal muscles.

Question 54

What is centring?

Answer 54

Breathing control where they can relax the shoulders and chest and concentrate on the movement of abdominal muscles, and breath.
This diverts attention from the stress.

Question 55

What is attribution theory?

Answer 55

A perception of the reason for an outcome of an event.
Reasons for winning or losing are given by sporting leaders, and by players.
The reasons are vital to maintain motivation and effort.
The evaluation can give confidence, satisfaction and make expectations higher.

Question 56

What did Weiner say about attribution?

Answer 56

The reasons for winning and losing were classified into the locus of causality and the stability dimension, and then sub-divided.

Question 57

What is the locus of causality?

Answer 57

The reasons for the outcome are either internal - within their control, or external - outside of their control.
If you think the result was down to you e.g. effort, then you have some control of the result.
External control are things you have little influence over - luck or referee’s decision.

Question 58

What is stability dimension?

Answer 58

Reasons for the outcome can be changeable in a short time - unstable, or relatively permanent - stable.
If you think you did not try hard enough in the game, then this can be changed in a week, so is unstable.
If you think you are good at defending, this is likely to be maintained and so is stable.

Question 59

What is self-serving bias?

Answer 59

It helps to promote esteem, by believing the win was due to stable, internal reasons.
So to maintain happiness and motivation, the coach should blame losing on a referee decison, external and unstable reasons.
The players will feel a loss can be changed.
Learned helplessness can occur if internal and stable reasons are given for a loss.

Question 60

What is learned helplessness?

Answer 60

When the player doubts if they can actually complete the task successfully.
They blame losing on stable and internal reasons like ability.
Their confidence is so low that they think failure is inevitable, even if success is possible.

Question 61

What are the sub-divisions of learned helplessness?

Answer 61

It can be so bad it becomes general and the player feels they are no good at sport overall or a type of sport.
It can be specific to one sport or event, a player thinks they are no good at squash because they constantly make mistakes.

Question 62

What is attribution retraining?

Answer 62

To overcome learned helplessness, aimed to change the reasons given for success and failure.
Coach should change stable internal reasons to unstable external.
Provide motivation via reinforcement, allow early success, set achievable goals and stress any personal improvement made.

Question 63

What is mastery orientation?

Answer 63

The performer has high confidence, belief in their ability, thinks success can be repeated, and failure is temporary and changeable.
They will show approach behaviour.