Information processing

Question 1

What is information processing?

Answer 1

The process of taking account of the sporting environment and then making decisions prior to the execution of the skill.
Input - decision making - output.

Question 2

What is the input stage?

Answer 2

The performer uses the senses to pick up information from the sporting environment - the display.

Question 3

What is sight?

Answer 3

The performer can pick up the flight of the ball or the position of an opponent using their sight.
Picking up such information early can be useful and may mean that the information on the flight of the ball is processed quickly, allowing the performer a fraction of a second more to make the decision.

Question 4

What is auditory sense?

Answer 4

A player may hear the call of a teammate or the sound of the referee’s whistle.
A cricketer may hear the sound of the ball catching the edge of the bat before attempting to make a catch.

Question 5

What are the proprioceptors?

Answer 5

The internal senses are called proprioceptors, which provide intrinsic information about touch, balance and kinesthesis.
Hearing and sight are external senses.

Question 6

What is touch and balance?

Answer 6

It can be used to feel the grip on the ball or the feel of the springboard used by a diver through their feet.
The basketball player who needs to set their feet before taking a free throw needs to be balanced to ensure the accuracy of the shot.

Question 7

What is kinesthesis?

Answer 7

A sense from within the performer, using sensors within the muscle receptors that relay information about muscle tension and therefore body position.
The swimmer will use kinesthesis to help them be aware of body position during a tumble turn.

Question 8

What is decision making?

Answer 8

The performer must make decisions based on all the information collected from the senses.
Selective attention and the memory system are very important here.

Question 9

What is selective attention?

Answer 9

The process of filtering the relevant information from the irrelevant information.
For example, the ball and position of opponents in a game might be information that is vital but the crowd might be something the performer wants to ignore.

Question 10

How can selective attention be developed?

Answer 10

Learning to focus and concentrate on the important information, getting used to the stimulus.
If the stimulus is made more intense, loud or bright when the performer is training, it helps to develop concentration.
For example, a football player may use a brightly coloured ball during training.

Question 11

How can selective attention be developed - ignoring?

Answer 11

The performer may also learn to ignore the irrelevant information by training with distractions in a realistic environment.
Sounds associated with a passionate crowd, as well as the national anthem, could be played over the loud speaker during training, in anticipation of the atmosphere expected at the game.
The players are told to concentrate on their calls and communication and to ignore the crowd noise.

Question 12

How can selective attention be developed - motivation?

Answer 12

Improved motivation helps selective attention.
Coach and player could enhance motivation by using rewards such as positive comments, and once motivation is increased, the performer becomes more alert to the important information.
The application of mental practice can help the process when the performer runs through the upcoming task in the mind before the movement starts.

Question 13

What is DCR?

Answer 13

The perceptual stage of information processing involves detection, comparison and recognition.
Detection means that the performer has picked up the relevant information and identified it as important, using the senses and selective attention.
Comparison involves trying to match the important information to information already in the memory of the performer.
Recognition means that the performer has used information from the memory to identify an appropriate response, to then be put into action.

Question 14

What is the translatory mechanism?

Answer 14

Helps to adapt and compare (convert) coded information to memory so that decisions can be made.
The filtered information from the senses is adapted into an image that can be sent to the memory for comparison.
The translatory mechanism uses past experiences so that information received can be linked with these past experiences and sent to the memory system.
Similar actions which have been stored can be recognised and then used.
Actions are stored in the memory in the form of motor programmes.
The translatory mechanism uses coded information from the perceptual process to pick out an appropriate motor programme.

Question 15

What is the translatory mechanism?

Answer 15

Using the information from the perceptual mechanisms, a decision is made on what action should be taken, with the help of previous experiences stored in the memory.
The correct response is selected in the form of a motor programme.

Question 16

What is the effector mechanism?

Answer 16

It is the network of nerves that is responsible for delivering the decisions made during the perceptual process to the muscles so that those muscles can perform the action.
The muscles will receive the information in the form of coded impulses and once this impulse is received, then the muscles will contract and the response (output) can begin.

Question 17

What is feedback?

Answer 17

Information used during or after the response to aid the correct movement.
Positive, negative, internal, external, knowledge of results, of performance.

Question 18

What is the central executive?

Answer 18

It has overall control over all the information entering and leaving the working memory.
It quickly identifies which information should be sent to one of its sub-memory systems.
These sub-systems perform different functions: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

Question 19

What is the phonological loop?

Answer 19

In sport, auditory information can be processed here.
It is a temporary storage system, which creates a memory trace that is sent to the long term memory to trigger the motor programme.
The memory trace fades away if not rehearsed.

Question 20

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Answer 20

It holds visual and spatial information.
It also helps to process information about the feel of the movement such as the flight of a gymnast during a vault.
The spatial component suggests information about sporting actions that can be recognised and acted upon.

Question 21

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 21

This co-ordinates the work of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad into sequences.
It produces integrated sequences of sight, sound and movements which can be sent to the long term memory.
They are the starting point for the initiation of motor programmes, which are patterns of the whole skill, and can be used to produce movement.

Question 22

What does the working memory do?

Answer 22

Selective attention is used to filter out irrelevant information.
The working memory has links with the long term memory, sending coded information for future storage and use.

Question 23

How do the working memory and long term memory work together?

Answer 23

The working memory produces a memory trace, a mental snapshot of the skill being used, and sends this memory trace to the LTM so that the trace can be compared to information already contained in the storage area of the LTM.
The LTM can then send information back to the working memory for use in the current sporting situation.

Question 24

What are the limitations of the working memory?

Answer 24

It has a limited capacity - it can only deal with around 7 items of information at any one time and information overload could mean that important information is lost or disregarded by the performer.
It is therefore useful that selective attention limits the amount of information sent to the working memory.
It only lasts for around 30 seconds until the information is either lost or used.

Question 25

What are the characteristics of the long term memory?

Answer 25

Important information can be stored here in the form of a motor programme, a more permanent trace of a skill consisting of all the components that make up that skill.
It has a large capacity and it can store information for a lifetime if needed.

Question 26

How can a coach use rewards to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 26

Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards help to motivate the performer to want to remember the correct actions.

Question 27

How can a coach use association to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 27

Associating actions you wish to learn with appropriate actions or emotions already stored in the memory.
For example, the feeling of satisfaction and pride generated from getting the reward of a certificate can be linked with the actual swimming actions used to earn that reward and so those actions are remembered.

Question 28

How can a coach use mental practice to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 28

When the parts or sub-routines of a skill are imagined over and over again in the mind without physical movement, this can help to store information in the memory.
Mental practice is particularly useful for helping to remember the correct sequence of a serial skill such as a trampolining routine, because the components can be rehearsed in the correct order, so less likely to be forgotten.

Question 29

How can a coach use breaking the task down to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 29

This can help to prevent information overload, especially useful with complicated skills.
The performer can learn one aspect of the task before going on to learn the next part.
The technique of breaking the task into parts so it is more easily recalled is chunking.
Chaining, when information is recalled as a sequence, also helps store info.

Question 30

How can a coach use focus to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 30

By getting the performer to focus and concentrate on the task in hand, ignoring distractions, helps the process of selective attention which in turn ensures that correct information goes to the short and then long term memory.

Question 31

How can a coach use repetition to ensure items are stored in the LTM?

Answer 31

Repeating practice to the stimulus will ensure that skills are coded and stored as motor programmes in the LTM, and those motor programmes will stay in the LTM until they are needed.

Question 32

What is Schema theory?

Answer 32

Schmidt: motor control and learning 1982.
Core principles can be taken from an existing motor programme and then adapted, using some of the information from the environment and by feedback from the senses.
This is instead of using a structured set of movements to develop skills.

Question 33

What is an example of Schema?

Answer 33

The skill of throwing a javelin probably uses a motor programme consisting of subroutines grip, arm action and follow-through.
The coaching points could be adapted for use in the goalkeeper throw.
The grip and arm action may need to be adjusted to suit the sport and situation.

Question 34

What are the initial conditions?

Answer 34

Recall schema:
This refers to the information from the sporting environment that must be recognised before the schema can be used.
This may be the position on court, the placing of the limbs prior to the action and the location of the performer in relation to other players.
Where am I?

Question 35

What are response specifications?

Answer 35

Recall schema:
The information from the envionment is used to assess the available options open to the performer.
How far away is the nearest player and therefore how hard should I pass the ball.
Which type of pass is best to use in the situation.
What do I need to do?

Question 36

What is recall schema?

Answer 36

Initial conditions and response specifications.
Information is used from the motor programme in the memory system.
It is responsible for initiating the movement and happens before the action has taken place.

Question 37

What is the recognition schema?

Answer 37

Once the action is underway, sensory consequences and response outcome are used to control the movement.

Question 38

What are sensory consequences?

Answer 38

This concerns the use of the senses to help guide the movement.
For example, the grip of the netball may be controlled by using the senses of touch, or the strength in the pass may be controlled by the feel of movement during the arm action.
Information from the senses is used to control and apply the movement to the situation - when a longer pass is needed to move the ball up the court, the arm action would be stronger and the grip firmer.

Question 39

What is the response outcome?

Answer 39

The schema and motor programme can be updated by getting knowledge of the result of the action.
Did the pass reach the intended target?
If the pass was successful, the schema was.
If not, adjustments may be made next time and the motor programme adapted.

Question 40

How can the coach make sure schema is used successfully?

Answer 40

To help the performer become familiar with using schema is to vary the practice conditions.
The coach should offer frequent feedback to the player to ensure that actions and motor programmes can be adjusted.
The coach should point out and explain to the player when schema can be used.
Parts of the skill that can be transferred should be pointed out.

Question 41

How can the coach ensure schema is used?

Answer 41

The coach can offer reinforcement through praise to encourage further use of schema in other situations.
This may offer motivation to continue using a method of skill development that enhances performance.

Question 42

What is reaction time?

Answer 42

It is the time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the onset of the response.
The fraction of the second it takes us to process the available selected stimuli.
Involves no movement.

Question 43

What is movement time?

Answer 43

The time it takes us to complete the task after information processing has taken place.

Question 44

What is response time?

Answer 44

The total time it takes from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the task.
Response time = reaction time + movement time.

Question 45

What is simple reaction time?

Answer 45

When there is one specific response to one stimulus.
For example, an athlete at the start of the race responding to the starter’s gun.
This one choice should produce a fast reaction and response since the athlete has only one thing to think about before reacting.

Question 46

What is choice reaction time?

Answer 46

Choosing from numerous stimuli, and the response time is much slower than simple.
It can also be if the player has to choose a number of responses once the correct stimuli has been chosen.

Question 47

What is Hick’s Law?

Answer 47

As the number of choices increases, so does the reaction time.
This can be used to the player’s advantage since you can try to keep your opponent guessing.
When serving in tennis you can mix up your serves with direction or slice so that the opponent is never sure which one they are going to face.
The variety will increase response preparation time and hopefully delay the actions of the opponent.

Question 48

What does Hick’s Law look like on a graph?

Answer 48

It is not always a straightforward linear relationship.
For example, in tennis, the player can become familiar with their environment and, as the game gets into its later stages, become used to the types of serves and so response time becomes slightly quicker.
So the line can be a curved shape because the rate at which response are slowed by increasing choice reduces as the environment becomes familiar and the number of choices is reduced.

Question 49

What is the single-channel hypothesis?

Answer 49

States that stimuli can only be processed one at a time.
Therefore a second stimulus must wait until the first has been processed before it can be.
Any following stimuli must also wait.
The delay in processing increases response time.
Y shape.

Question 50

What is the psychological refractory period?

Answer 50

This explains the delay that occurs because we can only process one stimulus at a time.
The confusion caused by the arrival of a second stimulus before the first is proccessed is the PRP.
For example, in tennis, you are set to volley from your forehand but the ball hits the net and deflects to your backhand. You have to sort out the new and correct stimulis, but first disregard the old and now useless stimulus, causing a delay.

Question 51

How can you use the psychological refractory period to your advantage?

Answer 51

You can decieve your opponent to force a delay in their response.
For example, performing a fake pass in a team game or by using fake body language to fool your opponent, by standing as if to hit a short serve in badminton then performing a long serve.

Question 52

What is anticipation?

Answer 52

When a performer tries to pre-judge a stimulus, perhaps by using information from the environment in the form of signals from the opponent, including body language and positioning of the opponent.
The information could be learned prior to the game by researching or during.

Question 53

What are the types of anticipation?

Answer 53

Temporal anticipation is pre-judging when the stimulus is going to happen.
Spatial anticipation refers to where and what the projected stimuli are going to be.
Both are needed, for example in rugby, so that when judging the catch of a high ball, the player needs to know where on the pitch the ball is going to land and when it will get there.

Question 54

How does anticipation affect reaction time?

Answer 54

Correct anticipation improves reaction time.
As the information processing is sped up, the information has been processed before the action has happened, so the movement can happen immediately.
However, if the anticipation is incorrectly judged then there will be a delay.

Question 55

How can mental practice be used to improve reaction time?

Answer 55

By going over the task in the mind prior to the action, the response preparation process is improved and the action can be predicted and so made quicker.
Mental practice works well with closed skills and serial skills, when the environment is predictable.

Question 56

How can training and fitness be used to improve reaction time?

Answer 56

During practice the performer could train to the specific stimulus expected in the game - a goalkeeper might practice saving penalties to their left if their opposition has a preference for the left.
Improving fitness improves reaction time - interval and plyometrics might improve speed and power during the movement part of the response.

Question 57

How can focus be used to improve reaction time?

Answer 57

The performer could learn to focus and concentrate during the game so that the stimulus is picked up early.
To help with concentration, the coach could make the stimuli intense, by pointing out the exact area in which to place the hands during a gymnastic vault and highlighting this in coloured chalk might help.
The player may use anticipation to predict the stimulus, especially if they have done their homework on the opponent.