Psychological effects on individuals

Question 1

What is anxiety?

Answer 1

A state of nervousness and worry, a negative response to a threatening sporting situation.
It often arises as a result of the players perception of the situation.

Question 2

What is competitive trait anxiety?

Answer 2

When a player feels nerves before most games and could simply be part of the player’s genetic make-up.
It is displayed before all competitions, regardless of the importance of the event and the possibility of winning.

Question 3

What is competitive state anxiety?

Answer 3

More temporary and is a response to a particular moment in the game or a specific sporting situation.
The amount of anxiety experienced can vary throughout the game, and can often depend on the mood of the player at that time.

Question 4

What is an example of competitive state anxiety?

Answer 4

When taking a penalty in a hockey game, the focus of attention and responsibility is on the player and this can temporarily increase anxiety, and affect the outcome unless nerves are controlled.

Question 5

What is the link between trait and state anxiety?

Answer 5

An individual with high trait anxiety is more likely to experience high state anxiety when faced with a stressful situation.
This is especially true if they are being watched or evaluated.

Question 6

What is cognitive anxiety?

Answer 6

It’s psychological and refers to irrational thinking and worries that may occur.
They may not believe they have the ability to complete the task, and experience nervousness and loss of concentration.

Question 7

What is somatic anxiety?

Answer 7

It’s physiological and is the response of the body to the individual’s beliefs in their lack of ability to complete the task.
Symptoms may include increased heart rate, sweating muscular tension, nausea and respiratory rate.

Question 8

What is the effect of anxiety on a graph?

Answer 8

Increases in somatic anxiety can improve performance up to a point, after which further increases will impair performance.
Cognitive anxiety has a negative linear affect. The greater the cognitive anxiety, the worse the performance.

Question 9

What are the types of anxiety measures?

Answer 9

Self-report questionnaires, observation and psychological testing.
These are useful to the coach since knowledge of how players deal with and experience anxiety helps the coach to make informed decisions.

Question 10

What are questionnaires?

Answer 10

It asks the performer to answer a series of questions about their emotions in different situations.
It is quick, cheap and efficient so a large number of players can be assessed quickly, and the results are easily comparable.

Question 11

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

Answer 11

Players may not understand the question being asked and their answer may be one they think they ought to answer rather than the truth.
Answers may depend on mood state, e.g., answering after a win vs a loss.
The questions are inappropriate so lead to biased answers.
The responses can be influenced by rushing under time pressure.

Question 12

What is the SCAT?

Answer 12

The Sports Competition Anxiety Test is a questionnaire designed to measure how the player responds to competitive sporting situations.
It was then extended to the Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory (CSAI 2).

Question 13

What are the results of the CSAI2?

Answer 13

The tests should be completed an hour prior to the performance for accurate results.
A weakness in dealing with stress and anxiety can be identified, especially if cognitive.

Question 14

What is observation?

Answer 14

Gaining a measure of anxiety simply by watching the performer, either in their familiar training environment or during a game.
This is good as they are true to life.

Question 15

What are the disadvantages of observation?

Answer 15

The results are based of the opinion of the observers, and so the results are highly subjective.
The observers need to know what the people behave like normally so that changes can be recognised.
The process is very time consuming and can need multiple observers.
A person who knows they’re being watched might change their behaviour or become more anxious and uneasy, so results are invalid.

Question 16

What are physiological measures?

Answer 16

Anxiety can be measured by using a physical response from the body.
For example, increased heart rate, increased levels of sweating, increased rate of respiration and levels of hormone secretion.

Question 17

What are the advantages of physiological measures?

Answer 17

They are factual so comparisons can be made easily.
Responses to anxiety could be measured in training or real game situations.
Heart rate can be measured by an electronic device contained in the clothing and relayed immediately to the coach, who can judge anxiety.

Question 18

What are the disadvantages of physiological measures?

Answer 18

Training is often required so that coaches can learn how to use the devices. The cost of them may deter amateur performers from using them.
Wearing the measuring device can restrict movement in sport, e.g., hr monitor.
The knowledge of being measured may cause additional stress and give a false reading.

Question 19

What is motivation?

Answer 19

It is the drive needed to succeed.
It keeps players on track and means they are persistent and consistent.

Question 20

What is intrinsic motivation?

Answer 20

Motivation from within.
It could be a feeling of pride and satisfaction at completing a task.

Question 21

What is extrinsic motivation?

Answer 21

Comes from an outside source such as the coach or other players, or even spectators.

Question 22

What are tangible rewards?

Answer 22

They are physical, can be touched or held.
Certificates, cups, trophies, medals.

Question 23

What are intangible rewards?

Answer 23

Non-physical.
Praise and encouragement from a coach, applause from the crowd, comments from the media, breaking a personal best.

Question 24

What is over-motivating?

Answer 24

Don’t place too much emphasis on extrinsic rewards, as over-use can lead to a loss in value and incentive.
It can become the norm not the exception and players may compete for it, rather than for the love of the game.
It can place too much pressure to win, and lead to cheating.
It can also undermine the importance of performing for health, exercise and skill improvements.

Question 25

What strategies can a coach use when motivating?

Answer 25

Offer rewards early on.
Point out health benefits of the task.
Point out role models for them to aspire to.
Use feedback to inspire and correct errors.

Question 26

What strategies can a coach use when motivating - success?

Answer 26

Make the activity fun, and perhaps easier to allow success.
Make the player feel responsible for success by praising.
Set goals achievable to the performer.
Break the skill down into parts, and allow success at each step.

Question 27

What is aggression?

Answer 27

The intent to harm outside the rules.
It is deliberate, hostile behaviour, reactive, out of control.

Question 28

What is assertion?

Answer 28

Well-motivated behaviour within the rules.
It is controlled, goal-directed and not intended to harm.

Question 29

What is instinct theory?

Answer 29

Aggression is spontaneous and innate.
It can arise when threatened - e.g. a foul causes the threat of injury, so you might react by defending yourself in an aggressive act.
After this, catharsis may occur, the cleansing of emotion, so sport is an outlet for aggression.

Question 30

What is frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Answer 30

Aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the player becomes frustrated.
The built-up frustration can be reduced if an aggressive act is initiated by the performer - catharsis.
But, if they are unable to, a form of self-punishment occurs and even more frustration leads to increased aggressive drive.

Question 31

What is catharsis?

Answer 31

The cleansing of emotions.
If the aggressive intent is given an outlet, the aggressive drive is reduced.

Question 32

Why might aggression occur?

Answer 32

Losing, poor play by you or a team mate, disagreement with a referee, a hostile crowd, pressure of success, a high pressure game, being fouled.
Not all frustration leads to aggression.

Question 33

What is aggressive cue hypothesis?

Answer 33

Increased frustration leads to increased arousal levels and a drive towards aggressive responses.
But these responses only occur if certain learned cues are present to act as a stimulus for aggressive acts.
Aggression can be learned from significant others such as coaches and fellow players.

Question 34

What are examples of aggressive cue hypothesis?

Answer 34

In football, players often push and grab each other when jostling for position in a corner kick.
The coach may have encouraged this by telling players not to be pushed out of position, so a corner kick is a cue.
A sporting venue, such as the away pitch, or sporting equipment, or other people may be cues.

Question 35

What is social learning theory?

Answer 35

Aggression is a learned response.
It can be copied from significant others, especially if reinforced.
Observe -> identify -> reinforce -> copy
Live behaviour is more likely to be copied than recorded behaviour, and is consistent, powerful and bright.

Question 36

What can a coach do to prevent aggression?

Answer 36

Do not reinforce aggressive acts in training.
Substitute an aggressive player or remove them from the situation.
Talk to players to calm them down.
Promote peer pressure within the team.
Point out responsibilities to the team.
Point out non-aggressive role models.
Set non-aggressive goals.

Question 37

What can an official do to prevent aggression?

Answer 37

Punish aggression with fines.
Punish players by sending them off.
Reinforce non-aggression, e.g. a fair play award.
Apply the rules consistently and fairly.
Apply sanctions immediately.

Question 38

What can a player do to prevent aggression?

Answer 38

Walk away from the situation.
Use mental rehearsal or relaxation to lower arousal.
Set non-aggressive goals.
Channel aggression into assertion.