Physics/Chem Flashcards
What is a multiplet
A peak with more than four splits
Dielectric mateiral in circuit capacitors effect
- When dielectric material ini circuit still connected to voltage source, charge on capacitor inc
- Voltage remains constant because of voltage source
- Capacitance inc by factor of dielectric constant
UV spectroscopy methods
- UV light passed through a sample
- Absorbance is read
HOMO vs LUMO
Easily excited and can absorb longer wavelengths with lower energy
HOMO: Highest occupied molecule orbitals
LUMO: Lowerst unoccupied molecular orbital
HClO
Hypochlorous acid
What is an extraction
Transfer of a dissolved compound from a starting solvent into a solvent with a much more soluble product
How to calculate amount of splitting for distinct protons
Frequency of protons near the proton of interest + 1
-Ex: A proton has two protons in its proximity so triplet
H3PO4
Phosphoric Acid
What vectors make up Electromagnetic waves
Oscillating electric and magnetic field vectors perpendicular to direction of propagation
For single slit interferences what is the equation for location of drak fringes
asinθ = n(wavelength) -a= width of slit n= interger indicating number of fringes
What is the critical angle
The angle at which if you exceed this angle, light is internally refracted and cannot escape the medium
Nodes vs Antinodes for pipes
Open at both ends: antinodes at each open end
Open at one end: node at closed end
H2CO3
Carbonic Acid
magnification equation
m = (-di)/(do)
m=(hi)/ho
Change in parent nucleus in electron capture
Atomic number dec by 1 but mass is same
Mechanical Advantage
Ratio of magnitudes of force exertion/by an object by by a simple machine to the force actually applied on the simple machine
Fout/Fin
Amplitude
Max magnitude of displacement in a wave
-Only look at either crest or trough height, not both
Cl-
Chloride
Potential Energy definition
Energy associated with a given object’s position in space or other intrinsic qualities of the system
-The potential to do work
HClO4
Perchloric acid
What is current def
flow of charge between two points at different electric potentials connected by a conductor
Translational motion/equilibrium
Translational motion: occurs when forces cause an object to move without any rotation.
Translational equilibrium: Exists only when vector sum of all of the forces acting on an object is equal to zero
-An object in translational equilibrium will have constant velocity (constant speed and direction)
Capacitor def
Can hold charge at a particular voltage
Weak nuclear force def
Contributes to stability of nucleus
-Not nearly as strong as strong nuclear force
Ether C-O IR freq
1050-1150
Electrolytic cells emf
negative so nonspont.
E-field magnitude when given test charge value
Fe/q
Beta minus decay process
Neutron conveted into a proton and beta minus particle emitted
What is capacitance measured in
Farads
1 F = 1 Coloumb/Volt
N-H peak IR freq
3100-3500 sharp peak
Permeability of free space constant
Mo = permeability of free space
=4pi10^-7 Tm/A
NO3-
Nitrate
Function fo chromatography
Separate and identify compounds from a complex mixture by their physica;/chemical properties
As more resitors are added what happens to total resistance for both parallel and series resitors
For in series: more resistors = more resistance
For in parallel: more resistors = less resistance
In electrochemical cells, where do electrons travel from and where do they go
In all electrochemical cels, movement of e- is from anode to cathode
1st 2nd and 3rd harmonics for open pipe wavelenghts
1st: wavelength = 2L
2nd: L
3rd: 2/3L
If m is positive/negative what does this say about the image projected from the mirror?
Pos: image is upright
Neg: Image is inverted
Fractional distillation Advantages
Used to separate liquids with similar boiling points less than 25 degC apart
Wnon conservative
When nonconvservative forces are present, total ME is not conserved
Wnonconservative = deltaE = deltaU + deltaK
Nonconservative forces are path dependent
-The longer the distance traveled, the more energy dissipated
Is a convex mirror converging or diverging
Diverging
Period
Number of seconds per cycle
T = (1/f)
-Inverse of frequency
Traveling Wave
Moving wave that propagates towards the fixed end
-If free end of stick keeps moving up and down, two waves result and interfere with each other
How do electrolytic cells differ from galvanic
emf opposite
- Need an external voltage source to drive decomposition of compounds
- Redox rxns don’t need to be separated
H2CrO4
Chromic Acid
Wavelength
Distance from crest to crest of next wave
Equation for power of a lens
P=1/f
Doppler Effect Equation
f’ = f[(V+- Vd)/(V-+Vs)]
Upper sign: + if detector moving towards other object
minus if detector moving away from other object
Lower sign: minus if source of sound moving towards other object
+ if source moving away from object
What happens to the excess energy of an incident photon above threshold freq that colides with a metal atom
It is converted into Kinetic energy in the ejected e-
Ammeter function
MEasures current at some point within a current
-Circuit has to be on or else V=0 A
When does proton deshielding occur
When a proton is bonded to a highly EN atom that pulls e- density away from the porton
- Proton cannot shield istelf from the applied magnetic field
- Has a reading further downfield
Is n=1 a mean light travels slower than n=1..4 for index of refraction
1 is faster
E-field magnitude when given stationary source charge value
kQ/r^2
What are the three principla rays of lenses
- A ray that is parallel to the optical axis will bend such that it passes through the focal point on the other side
- If a ray passes through the focal point and then hits the lens, it will come out parallel to the optical axis
- If a ray passes through the center of the lens, it won’t bend
Power of multiple lens equation
P=P1 + P2 + … + Pn
H3BO3
Boric Acid
Isovolumetric/Isochocric
Constant volume
Electromotive force measured in?
Volts
1 V = 1 J/coloumb
What are insulators
DO not easily distribute a charge over its surface and will not transfer that charge to another neutral object
Steps of an extraction
- Two solvents mixed togehter
- Two layers: aqueous/mobile phase and organic phase - Separatory funnel used to isolate two phases
- Denser layer sinks to bottom and removed
- Usually organic layer is on top but depends on densities - Bottom layer is drained multiple times for extraction
- Solvent evaporated once desired product is isolated
NO2-
Nitrite
Capacitors in parallel eq
Cp = C1 + C2 + … + Cn
Reverse phase chromatography distinction from TLC
Stationary phase is nonploar
-This means polar molecules move up plate quicker
Simple Distillation steps
- Liquid with lower boiling point vaporizes first
- Vapors rise up distillation column - Vapors condense in water-cooled condenser
- End product is distillate
Galvanic cells standard reduction potential
The electrode with the more positive Eo red is the cathode
-More negative Eo red is the anode
If anion ends in -ate, what does this mean
More oxygen
Dampening/Attenuation
When friction exists, decrease in amplitude of a wave is caused by an applied/non conservative force
CH3COOH
Acetic Acid
Right hand rule for direction of force between current and magnetic field
- Fingers in direction of current
- Wrap fingers to direction of magnetic field
- Thumb points in direction of force
Equation for law of reflection
θ1 = θ2 θ1 = incident angle θ2 = reflected angle
Alpha decay what is emitted
Emits alpha particle
4
He Nucleus
2
How is a mirror image real?
If light actually converges at the position of the image
IR spectroscopy measures ?
Measures molecular vibrations
-Infrared light passed through a sample and absorbance measured
Electrolytic conductivity
Conductivity of solutions
deltaG for galvanic cells
deltaG < 0 -> rxn is spont.
CrO4 (2-)
Chromate
Relationship between radius of curvature and focal point
f = r/2
Current equation
I = Q/deltat
t=time
TLC components
Mobile phase: thin layer of silica gel/alumina
Paper: medium is paper composed of cellulose
Sp3 hybridized C’s ppm Proton NMR
0-3.0
Anode cathode pnemonic
RED CAT AN OX
reduction = cathode
oxidation = anode
Snell’s law equation
n1 sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
- Both 1s refer to medium light is coming from
- Both 2s refer to medium light is entering
Whathappens if more than one neutron is released in fission
Causes chain reaction where nearly all atoms undergo fission
Lorentz forces def
Fb = qvBsin(theta)
B=mag of magnetic field
Theta= smallest anle between velocity vector and magnitude of mmagnetic force vector
v=magnitude of velocity
Displacement vs Distance
Displacement: when an object in motion changes its position in space
- Does not account for path taken
Distance: Considers the pathway taken and is scalar
HClO2
Chlorous acid
Forced Oscillation:
Periodic varying force applied to a system
Force frequency: frequency of force causing these forced oscillations
-Amplitude of oscillations at max
1st 3rd and 5th harmonics for closed pipe wavelengths
1st: wavelength = 4L
2nd: = (4/3)L
3rd: = (4/5)L
Convergence/Divergence relation to lens thickness?
If converging, thicker in center
If diverging, thinner in center
What are Newton’s three laws
1st: Fnet = ma = 0
2nd: Fnet = ma
3rd: F(AB)=-F(BA)
do vs di mirrors
do=distance between object and mirror
di =distance between image and mirror
Goal of filtration
Isolates a solid from a liquid
Vacuum distillation advantages
Allows to distill compounds with higher boiling points at lower temperatures without degrading product
-Can distill liquids with boiling points over 150 degC
Gravity Filtration
Solvent’s own weight pulls it through filter
-Used when product of interest is in filtrate
How is the direction of electric field determined?
Direction is given as direction that positive test charge mves in presence of source charge
- If source positigve: repulsive force as test charge accelerates away from source charge
- If source negative: acclerates toward source charge
Vaccuum filtration
Solvent forced through filter by vaccuum
-Used when solid is desired product
Location of center of curvature and radius for concave mirror
both are in front of mirror
Index of refraction equation
n = c/v
c=speed of light
What directions due electrons flow with respect to a current
From lower electric potential to higher electric potential
-Reduces electric potential energy
Frequency
f = number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second
-measured in Hz Hertz
Nernst eq significance
When electrochemical cells deviate from standard conditions
-Also used for concentration cells when concentration of ions is different
Steps of filtration
- Liquid-Solid mix poured onto paper filter
- Solvent passes through
=Solid left on paper is called residue - Filtrate is the liquid that passed through
If f is positive/negative what type of lens is this
Pos: convex/converging
Neg: diverging/concave
Aldehyde ppm Proton NMR
9-10
Dielectric material def
A material that insulates charge
Equation for wavelength and frequency from speed of light
c=f*wavelength
Ohmeters function
Measure resistance through a circuit
- Does not req circuit to be active
- OFten have batteries of their own
What is the most commonly exploited chemical property in chromatography?
Polarity
- Polar compounds adhere to polar stationary phases and elute slower
- Measure how far substances travel in given amount of time or how long it takes to elute
Columb’s constant value
k=8.9910^9 (Nm^2)/C^2
Forced Oscillation:
Periodic varying force applied to a system
Force frequency: frequency of force causing these forced oscillations
-Amplitude of oscillations at max
Threshold frequency ft
Min freq of light that causes ejection of an e-
- Photoelectric effect is all or nothing
- -Either exceed fT or don’t
What types of materials are conductors
usually metals
-Also can be ionic solutions
Transverse Waves
Direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to propagation
-Propagation = motion of wave
Ex: visible light, X-rays
Fractional distillation steps
- Vapor rises up column and condenses back down to be evaporated agaon
- Subsequent vaporizations condense higher up in column
- each evaporation of condensate has higher proportion of compound with lower boiling point
- Once top column is reached, only desired product drips down to receiving flask
How does vacuum distillation allow for distillation of liquids with boiling points above 150 degC
Lowers ambient pressure
-This dec temp that liquid has to reach to have sufficient vapor pressure to boil
What is splitting Proton NMR
When two protons are in close proximity but not magnetically identical
Capacitors in series eq
1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + … + 1/Cn
If anion ends in -ite, what will acid end in
-ous acid
Ex: ClO2- = Chlorite -> HClO2 = Chlorous acid
Beta plus decay aka
Positron emission
When does shielding occur
If there is an e-donating group leading to proton being more upfield
If P is positive/negative what type of lens is this
pos: converging
neg: diverging
Isovolumetric/Isochocric
Constant volume
Nodes vs Antinodes for pipes
Open at both ends: antinodes at each open end
Open at one end: node at closed end
Propagation speed of a wave equation
v = f*wavelength
Kirchhoff’s Junction Law eq
I into junction = I leaving junction
Work energy theorem
Direct relationship between work and energy
Wnet = deltaK = Kfinal - Kinitital
Pitch
Our perception of freq. of sound
-Lower freq. have lower pitch
What does the distance between field lines indicate?
If they are closer together, indicates stronger field
Force of gravity between two objects equation
Fg = (Gm1m2)/(r^2)
G=universal gravitational constant = 6.6710^(-11) (Nm^2)/kg^2
r=distance between their centers of mass
C-H IR freq
Alkane: 2800-2999
Alkene: 3080-3140
Alkynes: 3300
Aromatic: 2900-3100
What is the difference in charge of protons and electrons
They have the same magnitude of charge but opposite sign
-Proton: q=+e
Electron: q= -e
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma rays rank in order of increasing wavelength
Gamma, X-rays, UV, Visisble, IR, Microwave, Radio
Longitudinal Waves
Particles of wave oscillate parallel to direction of propagation
-Causes compression/direction along direction of propagation
Ex: Sound waves
What is the main difference between mirrors and lenses
Lens have two surfaces that affect light path
- Light is refracted instead of being reflected
- Lenses have two focal points with one on each side
Ohm’s Law eq
V=IR
V=voltage, I=current, R = magnitude of resistance measured in ohms
CH3COO-
Acetate
Doppler Effect Equation
f’ = f[(V+- Vd)/(V-+Vs)]
Upper sign: + if detector moving towards other object
minus if detector moving away from other object
Lower sign: minus if source of sound moving towards other object
+ if source moving away from object
Pitch
Our perception of freq. of sound
-Lower freq. have lower pitch
Range of hearing equation
Beta = 10log(I/I not)
Beta=sound level measured in decibels
I = intensity of sound wave
I not = threshold of hearing -> 1 x 10^-12 W/m^2
WHat types of electrons can be excited in UV-Vis spectroscopy
pi electrons and nonbonding e- can be excited to higher energy antibonding orbitals
Advantages of spectroscopy
- Only need small quantity of sample
- Sample can still be reused after test
Isobaric
Constant pressure
HF
Hydroflouric acid
What is a nucleon
When photons and neutrons come together to form a nucleus
- Attracted to each other by strong nuclear force
- This force compensates for electromagnetic force between protons
Intensity
Average rate of energy transfer per area across a surface perpendicular to wave
Measured in W/m^2 -> kg/s^2
I = P/A
Resitors in parallel eq
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn
Where are bright fringes located in slit interference
In between dark fringes
Angular Frequency
Measured in rads/sec
-used to look at simple harmonic motion in springs and pendulum
w = 2pif = (2pi)/T
Rotational Equilibrium
Exists when vector sum of all torques acting on an object equals zero
Two possibilities of motion in rotational equil.
- Object not rotating at all -> stationary
- Object rotating with constant angular velocity
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, just transferred from one form to another
- Total mechanical energy does not account for any forms of energy besides K & V
- Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Mass defect eq
E=mc^2
c=speed of light
m=mass
Capacitance through dielectric material eq
C’ = kC
k=dielectric constant
C’ = capacitance with dielectric material present
Phase difference
How in step or out of step waves are
-Ex: phase difference 1/2 wave -> 180 deg
Direction of current in respect to electron flow
Direction of current is opposite to electron flow
Isobaric
Constant pressure
Power
The rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another
P=(W/t) = (deltaE)/t
t=time
SI unit is watt (W) = J/s or (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
What does a negative magnifcation suggest?
an inverted image
Angular Frequency
Measured in rads/sec
-used to look at simple harmonic motion in springs and pendulum
w = 2pif = (2pi)/T
Carbonyl IR freq
1700 sharp/deep
Period
Number of seconds per cycle
T = (1/f)
-Inverse of frequency
Parallel plate capacitor eq
C= sigma initial * (A/d)
A=area of overlap between the two plates
d = seperation of two plates
Constructive vs Destructive Interference
Constructive: Waves perfectly in phase
-Displacements add together and amplitude is sum of amplitudes of the waves
Destructive: Waves are perfectly out of phase
-Resultant wave is difference between the two amplitudes
Resistance def
Opposition with any material to movement and flow of charge
Mass defect def
Difference between mass of nucleus and mass of all protons and neutrons
Ion exchange chromatography
Beads in column coated with charged substances attract or bind compounds with opposite charge
Equilibrium position
Central point at which waves oscillate around
Displacement x: describes how far a particular point on a wave is from its equilibrium position
-Expressed as vector quantity
PO4 (3-)
Phosphate
Ferromagnetic def
Unpaired e= and permanent atomic magnetic dipoles oriented to have no magnetic dipole
-Strongly magnetized when exposed to magnetif field
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma rays rank in order of increasing freq
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma
WHen is an image virtual?
If light only appears to be coming from position of image but does not actually converge there
Change in parent nucleus in positron emission
Atomic number dec by 1 but mass does not change
Electric potential definition
Ratio of magnitude of a charge’s electric PE to magnitidue of charge itself
V=U/q -> V=KQ/r
Coloumbs law eq
Fe = (kq1q1)/r^2
Fe=magnitude of electrostatic force
k=coulomb’s constant
q1 and q2 are magnitude of the two charges
Cation exchange chromatgraphy vs anion exchange what elutes faster and what gets stuck/binds to beads
Cation: negatively charged beads bond with cations
-Anions elute faster
Anion: positively charged beads bond with anions
-Cations elute faster
What is SI unit of chrage
Coloumb
What is the speed of light
c=3.0 * 10^8 m/s
Standard emf equation
E o cell = Eo red, cathode - Eo red, anode
Sp2 hybridized C’s ppm Proton NMR
1.3
If focal point is positive/negative what type of mirror is it
Pos: Concave and converging
Neg: Mirror is convex and diverging
Work definition and equation
Work is a process by which energy is transferred from one system to another
W=F*d = Fdcos(theta)
-Dot product so cos
F=magnitude of applied force
d=magnitude of displacement
theta = angle between applied force vector and displacement vector
SI unit: J
emf value for galcanic cells
positive
Transverse Waves
Direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to propagation
-Propagation = motion of wave
Ex: visible light, X-rays
What direction to test charges in relation to electric potential
If neg: spont move from lower electric potential to higher
If pos: spont move from higher electric potential to lower
-Positive charges want to dec electric potential and vice versa
Mag of magnetic field for circular loop of current-carrying wire with radius r
B=Mo*I/2r
When does internal reflection occur within a medium?
When the angle of refraction exceeds the critical angle
Order of shorthand notation for cell diagrams
Anode | anode solution (concentration) || cathode solution (conc) | cathode
Electromotive force def and meaning
Corresponds to voltage/electric potential of cell
- If positive, cells release energy so deltaG<0 and reaction is spont.
- If negative, cells absorb energy so delta G>0 and rxn is nonspont.
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, just transferred from one form to another
- Total mechanical energy does not account for any forms of energy besides K & V
- Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Chrmoatography basic steps
- Sample placed onto stationary phase
- Mobile phase runs through statonary phase
- Sample displaced/eluted and carried through stationary phase
- Different substances migrate at different speeds based on properties shared with stationary phase - Each substances migration speed and distance differences allows isolation of each substance individually
TLC steps
- Sample placed directly on stationary phase
- This is done by splotting or small well-defined spot of sample onto medium - Plate developed in developing chamber with shallow pool filled with eluent
- Solvent creeps slowly up plate via capillary action at varying rates
- Plate removed when solvent nears top of plate
Potential energy of capacitor eq
U = 1/2CV^2
Longitudinal Waves
Particles of wave oscillate parallel to direction of propagation
-Causes compression/direction along direction of propagation
Ex: Sound waves
Where is interference between waves displayed in slit interference
On the screen behind the slits
Fbeat equation
fbeat = |f1 - f2|
f beat = beat frequency
When anions form acids with names that end in -ide what suffix do they gain and what prefix do they gain
hydro- and -ic
Ex: Flouride -> HF -> Hydroflouric acid
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity that an object experiences as a result of some applied force
Measured in m/s^2
Electrochemical cells components
Contain both oxidation and reduction reactions
-Contain anodes and cathodes where oxidation reduction occurs
Friction: Static and Kinetic
Static friction: between a stationary object and the surface which it rests upon
- 0 is less than or equal to fs is less than or equal to Mus*N
—fs = static friction Ms = coefficient of static friction N = normal forces
Kinetic Friction: Exists between a sliding object and the surface over which the object slides
- fk = Muk*N
—MuK = coefficient of kinetic friction N = normal force fK = Kinetic friction
What does downfiled mean in proton NMR
Chemical shift to left on X-axis
-Deshielded
Current measurement
Amperes
1 Ampere = 1 Coloumb/s
Mechanical Advantage
Ratio of magnitudes of force exertion/by an object by by a simple machine to the force actually applied on the simple machine
Fout/Fin
Lorentz forces def
Sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces
Velocity vs Speed
Vector measured in rate of change of displacement in a given unit of time
- Measured in m/s
Speed: Rate of actual distance traveled in a given time
What is a conductor
When given a chrage, distrubutes it approximately evenly upon surface of conductor
Change in parent nucles in gamma decay
NO change in mass or atomic number
-Lowers energy of parent nucleus
emf for concentration cells
emf=0 when these concentration are equal
-Starts off as positive
CO3(2-)
Carbonate
Size exclusion chromatography
Beads in column have tiny pores of varying sizes
- Allows small compounds to enter beads -> slows them down
- Large compounds can’t fit through the pores and move around them -> elute much faster
Three principle rays for mirrors
- Ray parallel to optical axis reflects back through focal point
- Ray through the focal point reflects back parallel to the axis
- A ray that passes through the center of the mirror reflects back at the same angle relative to the normal
What does spectroscopy measures
Energy diffences between possible states of a molecular system by determining frequencies of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by molecules
Speed of sound through a medium
v = sqrt(beta/p)
beta = bulk modulus -> measure of medium’s resistance to compression
p = intensity of a the medium
-Sound travels faster through a solid
What happens when e- jumps from lower energy to higher energy orbital?
It absorbs a photon of light
Aldehydes CHO IR freq
2700-2900
Capacitrance eq
C = Q/V
Q=charge, V = coltage
HNO3
Nitric acid
Standing Wave
Both ends are fixed and wave fluctuation is in form of fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points on the length of a string
Effects of temperature on resistance
Most Conductors have greater resistance at high temps
Spherical aberration def
Blurring of periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection of parallel lens at edge of mirror or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at edge of lens
Alpha decay what is change in parent element
Mass decreases by 4
Atomic number decreases by 2
What happens when e- falls from higher energy to lower energy orbital
It emits a photon
Potential Energy definition
Energy associated with a given object’s position in space or other intrinsic qualities of the system
-The potential to do work
What can be used to measure emf of galvanic cells
A voltmeter can be connected
Gravitational potential energy
Object’s position with respects to some level identified as a datum
-Ground or the zero potential energy position
U=mgh
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height of object above datum
HCl
Hydrochloric acid
Nernst eq
Ecell = (Eo cell) - (RT/nF)(lnQ) Ecell = emf under nonstanard conditions R=ideal gas constant T=temp in K n = moles of e- Q=rxn quotient
Electrodisposition eq
mol M = It/nF
I = current, F = faraday’s constant 10^5 C/mol e-
n = number of e- equivalents for specific metal ion
mol M = amount of metal ion deposited on electrode
Open pipe frequency equation
f=(nv)/2L
Voltmeter function
Measures voltage drop between two points in circuit
- Also req circuit to eb on
- They have large resistance
What is released in electron capture
A neutrino
Is high ion concentration of a solution a good or bad conductor
Good conductor
What is the strongers of the four fundamental forces
Strong nuclear force
When does a fluorescent substance glow wit visible light
When it is excited with UV radiation
- These high freq radiation excites e-
- The excited e- return to original state in a few steps
- Photons of lower freq emitted at each step
Newton units in kg, m, s
Newton N = kg*m/s^2
Affinity chromatography
Protein of interest bound by creating a column with high affinity for that protein
- Coat beads with a receptor that binds protein or specific antibody to protein
- Once protein retained, can be eluted out by washing column to free receptor
Mass
Measure of a body’s inertia
-Scalar quantity with magnitude only
SI unit: Kg and is independent of gravity
Focal distance equation
1/do + 1/di = 1/f
Kirchhoff’s Loop rule
Around any closed circuit loop, sum of voltage sources equal to sum of voltage potential drops
-No excess is created or disappears, just changes form to another form of energy
Gamma decay process
Emission of gamma rays
Metallic conductivity
Allow free flow of electric charge within them
Standing Wave
Both ends are fixed and wave fluctuation is in form of fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points on the length of a string
What is a reverse extraction
Removes unwanted impurities
-Uses small amount of solvent
What is power of a lens measured in
diopters
Partially constructive/destructive
When waves aren’t perfectly in/out of phase
-If nearly in phase -> mostly add together and vice versa
Resistors in series eq
Rs = R1 + R2 + … Rn
Nodes vs Antinodes
Nodes: points in the wave that remain at rest
-Amplitude always equals zero
Antinodes: points midway between nodes that fluctuate with max amplitude
As a slit narrows, does light entering it diffract more or less
MOre
How are unknown compounds identified in TLC
Retardation factor: Rf = (distance spot moved)/(distance solvent front moved)
Ketone Carbonyl IR freq
1700-1750
Diamagnetic def
Atoms with no unpaired e- and no net magnetic field
-Slighly repelled by magnet
If do is positive/negative where is the object located in relation to the mirror
Positive: object in front of mirror
Negative: object behind mirror (rare)
When will light bend towards the normal after entering a new medium?
If the new medium has a higher index of refraction
What are the three kinematic equations:
No displacement: V = Vinitial + at
No final V:
x = Vinitialt + (1/2)(a(t^2)
No time: Vfinal^2 = Vinitial^2 + 2ax
When motion is vertical, can substitute y instead of x for displacement
g = a = 10m/s^2
Energy of photon eqution
E=hf
h=planck’s constant
f=freq of light
Colomb’s constant equation
k=1/4pi(sigma o )
sigma o: permittiveity of free space: 8.85*10^-12
Frequency
f = number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second
-measured in Hz Hertz
Equation for kinetic energy in ejected e- during photoelectric effect
Kmax = hf-W
W=work function: min energy req to eject e-
W=hfT where fT = threshold freq
What is binding energy
Allows nucleons to bind together in nucleus
F-
Flouride
What are the four fundamental forces
strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electrostatic, gravitational
Amplitude
Max magnitude of displacement in a wave
-Only look at either crest or trough height, not both
Voltage drop eq for resitors in parallel
Vp = V1 = V2 = … + Vn
Standard reduction potential meaning
If positive, tendency for reduction, if negative, tendency for oxidation
A convex lens is ____
converging
Beta decay most often refers to which type of decay
Beta minus decay
Gravitational potential energy
Object’s position with respects to some level identified as a datum
-Ground or the zero potential energy position
U=mgh
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height of object above datum
Br-
Bromide
closed pipe freq equation
f=nv/4L
Fusion vs fission
Fusion: small nuclei combining to form large nucleus
-Less common as power plant than fission
Fission: Process by which large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei
-Rarely occurs spontaneously
-Can be induced via absorption of lower energy neutron
Shock Wave
When object producing sound is above speed of sound and waves build upon another
- Creates much larger amplitude at that point
- Can cause physical disturbances when passing through other objects
- Creates a sonic boom
Column chromatography differences from TLC
- Entire column filled with silica/aluminum beads as stationary phase
- Allows for much greater separation - Uses gravity to move solvent and compounds down column
- Solvent can also be forced down with gas pressure
Partially constructive/destructive
When waves aren’t perfectly in/out of phase
-If nearly in phase -> mostly add together and vice versa
Voltage drop eq for resistors in series
Vs = V1 + V2 + … + Vn
What is the center of curvature?
Point on optical axis located a distance equal to radius of curvature from vertex of mirror
Fundamental unit of charge
e=1.6*10^-19 C
What differences does distillation leverage to separate compounds?
Boiling points
-Separates two liguids via evaporation/condensation
Speed of sound through a medium
v = sqrt(beta/p)
beta = bulk modulus -> measure of medium’s resistance to compression
p = intensity of a the medium
-Sound travels faster through a solid
What is resistivity measured in
ohm*m
What is the rule of extractions
Like dissolves like
-Polar dissolves polar etc
Loop rule eq
Vsource = V drop
H2SO4
Sulfuric Acid
Repulsive forces are between charges of what type?
Same sign
What materials are in between conductors and insulators in terms of resistance
Resistors
Do waves with a lower frequency have a higher or lower energy
Lower
-Energy of photon and freq are in direct proportion with each other
closed pipe wavelength equation
wavelength = 4L/n
n=odd integers
If di is postiive/negative where is the image in relation to the mirror
Positive: image in front of mirror and real
Neg: Image is behind mirror and virtual
Weight Fg
Measure of gravitational force on an object’s mass
- Vector quantity measured in newtons N
- It is a force
Fg = m*g Fg = weight of the object, m = mass of object g = acceleration due to gravity (usually 9.8 m/s^2 = 10)
Lensmaker’s equation
1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2)
n=index of refraction, r1 and r2 = radius of curvature for lens
Function of salt bridge in electrochemical cells
Permits exchange of cations and anions
SO4 (2-)
Sulfate
Isotopic notation
A
X
Z
A=mass number
X=element
Z=atomic numberLocation of center and radius of curvature for convex mirror
Both are behind the mirror
Similarities between column chromatography and TLC
Same principles: faster elution = more similarities to stationary phase
ClO3-
Chlorate
When does the photoelectric effect occur
When light beam with frequencies above threshold frequency of metal
What types of materials are insulators
Most nonmetals
What drives movement of e- for concentration cells
Concentration gradient results in potential difference between the two cells drives movement of e-
Mag of magnetic field for straight current-carrying wire
B=MoI/2pir
B=magnetic field
Mo=permeability of free space
I=current
ClO- name
Hypochlorite
If anion ends in -ite what does this mean
Less oxygen
What is a plane mirror and what type of images does it create?
It is a flat reflective surface with neither converging or diverging of reflected light rays
-Only creates virtual images
Elastic Potential Energy
Springs and other elastic systems act to store energy
-When relaxed -> equilibrium
-When a spring is stretched or compressed from equil length:
U = (1/2)kx^2
U = potential energy
x=magnitude of displacement
k=spring constant
Power equation
P=IV
P=I^2 * R
P = V^2/R
-Can use V=IR to substitute into these equations
Dampening/Attenuation
When friction exists, decrease in amplitude of a wave is caused by an applied/non conservative force
Gas chromatography
Mobile phase is a gas and stationary phase is crushed metal at foot of column
- Column coiled and kept inside an oven to control temp
1. Mixture injected into columna nd vaporized
2. Gaseous compounds travel through column at different rates
3. Compounds registered by detector that records them as peaks on a chart - Usually then injected into mass spectrometer
Recrystallization
Further purifies crysal in solution
Recrystallization steps
- Dissolve product in minimum amount of hot solvent and let it recrystallize as it cools
- Solvent is soluble to product only at high temps - When solution cools, only desired product is recrystallized without impurities
Equilibrium position
Central point at which waves oscillate around
Displacement x: describes how far a particular point on a wave is from its equilibrium position
-Expressed as vector quantity
Electrolytic cells standard reduction potential
Electrode with more positive Eo red is anode/oxidized
Typical Speed of sound
In 20 degC air -> 343 m/s
Fingerprint region
1500-400 cm^-1 range
-No need to identify substances here
What compounds cannot be separated via simple distillation
Only can be used to separate liquids that boil below 150 degC and have at least 25 degC difference in boiling points
Kirchhoff’s Junction law
At any point/junction in circuit, sum of currents into the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving
Concentration Cell def
Type of galvanic cell
- Still two half cells connected by conductive material -> spont. ox/red
- Diff from galvanic cells because two electrodes are chemically identical
Typical Speed of sound
In 20 degC air -> 343 m/s
What are the axes in a typical NMR plot
Frequency and absorption of energy
Carboxylic Acid ppm Proton NMR
10.5-12
Meaning of lines in shorthand notation of cell diagrams
One line denotes phase boundary
Double vertical line denotes salt bridge
Dispersion definition
When various wavelengths of light separate from each other
Position of dark fringes equation on the screen
dsinθ = (n+1/2)*wavelength
-d=distance between two slits
θ=angle between line drawn from mid point between two slits to dark fringe and the normal
n= number of fringes
WHat is used to calibrate NMR
TMS is the standard peak at 0 ppm
-Make sure to skip TMS peak when counting
Proton NMR what is height of each peak proportional to
Number of protons it contains
What units are magnetic fields measured in
Teslas
T=Ns/mC
Is a concave mirror converging or diverging
Converging
What is the photoelectric effect
When a metal atom emits an e-
-Produces net charge flow per unit time -> current
Total mechanical energy
The sum of an object’s potential and kinetic energies
E=U+K
Infrasonic vs Ultrasonic
Infra: below 20 Hz
Ultra: 20,000 Hz
Galvanic cells aka
Volatic cells
What is preparative TLC
Larger scale purifications
-Larger spots split into bands of individual compounds and scraped off and washed to yield pure compounds
Kinetic Energy Equation
K=(1/2)mv^2
SI units: J = (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
What materials have 0 resistance and which ones have high resistance?
Conductors have no resistance
Insulateors have high resistance
Propagation speed of a wave equation
v = f*wavelength
Dieelectric material in isolated capacitors effect
Voltage across capacitor dec
- Dielectric material shields opposite charges from each other
- If voltage dec, capacitance inc by factor of dielectric constant
deltaG relation to standard E cell
deltaGo = -nF(Eo cell) -deltaGo = standard free energy change Eo cell = standard emf of cell -F = Faraday Constant (make sure it is in J/V) n=# of e-
Where are ammeter and voltmeters wired within a circuit
Ammeter inserted in series
Voltmeters are wired in parallel to the two points
Standard reduction potential measured under what conditions?
Standard conditions: 25 degC, 1 atm, 1 M conc
Conservative Forces characteristics
- Path independent
- Do not dissipate energy
- Have potential energies associated with them
ClO2- name
Chlorite
Armoatic Ring ppm Proton NMR
6-8.5
Infrasonic vs Ultrasonic
Infra: below 20 Hz
Ultra: 20,000 Hz
When does movement of e-/current stop in concentration cells
Whenn concentration of ionic species in the half cells are equal
ClO4-
Perchlorate
Beta minus change in parent nucleus
Atomic number inc by 1 but mass does not change
Constructive vs Destructive Interference
Constructive: Waves perfectly in phase
-Displacements add together and amplitude is sum of amplitudes of the waves
Destructive: Waves are perfectly out of phase
-Resultant wave is difference between the two amplitudes
Magnification of multiple lens equation
m = m1m2…*mn
HNO2
Nitrous acid
Work definition and equation
Work is a process by which energy is transferred from one system to another
W=F*d = Fdcos(theta)
-Dot product so cos
F=magnitude of applied force
d=magnitude of displacement
theta = angle between applied force vector and displacement vector
SI unit: J
Voltage potential difference eq
DeltaV = Vb-Va = Wab/q -Wab = work needed to move test charge through electric field from a to b
Dot Product vs Cross Product
A*B = |A||B|cos(theta) -> scalar
AxB = |A||B|sin(theta) -> vector
Integration definition Proton NMR
Area under each of the peaks
POlarizers def
Allow only with an electric field pointing in a particular direction to pass through
Electron capture process
When unstable radionuclides capture an inner electron that combines with a proton to form a neutron
What direction does current run in electrochemical cells
Runs from cathode to anode
-This is the flow of protons and is opposite to the flow of e-
Vector vs Scalar
Vectors area both magnitude and direction.
Scalar: Magnitude but no direction
How does HPLC differ from GC
Liquid mobile phase and computerized
Nodes vs Antinodes
Nodes: points in the wave that remain at rest
-Amplitude always equals zero
Antinodes: points midway between nodes that fluctuate with max amplitude
high performance liquid chromatography
Eleunt travels through defined composition
-Stationary phase dependent on target molecule and quantity needed to be purified
Traveling Wave
Moving wave that propagates towards the fixed end
-If free end of stick keeps moving up and down, two waves result and interfere with each other
Trends of TLC for polar/nonpolar compounds
Nonpolar compounds dissolve more quickly in organic solvent and rise up plate quicker
Polar compounds is opposite
HPLC steps
- Small sample injected into column
- Separation occurs as it flows through
- Compounds pass through detector and collected as solvent flows out
deltaG under nonstandard conditions eq
deltaG = deltaGo + RTlnQ
Exponential decay eq
n=n initiale^-(decay constant)t
n=amount of sample remaining
n initial: number of undecayed nuclei at t=0
t=time
decay constant: represented by lambda, is always given or solved for
Electric PE eq
U=KQq/r
-Measured in J
Power
The rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another
P=(W/t) = (deltaE)/t
t=time
SI unit is watt (W) = J/s or (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
Rotational Motion
When forces are applied against an object that cause it to rotate around a fixed pivot point -> fulcrum.
Torque generated by application of force at a distance from the fulcrum.
-Torque generates rotational motion
T = rxF = rFsin(theta)
T = torque, r = length of lever arm, F = magnitude of force, theta = angle between lever arm and force vectors
Open Pipe wavelength equation
wavelength = (2L)/n -n = any integer
Phase difference
How in step or out of step waves are
-Ex: phase difference 1/2 wave -> 180 deg
What is the index of refraction for air?
1
Simplified Nernst Eq
Ecell = (Eo cell) - (.06/n)logQ
- Can use if T=298K
Wavelength
Distance from crest to crest of next wave
If anion ends in -ate what will acid end in
-ic acid
Ex: ClO3- = chlorate -> HCLO3 = Chloric acid
Attractive forces are between charges of what type?
Different charge
What IR frequencies are hydroxyl groups found
Alcohols: 3100-3500 borad peak
Carboxylic acid: Broad 2800-3200
Work energy theorem
Direct relationship between work and energy
Wnet = deltaK = Kfinal - Kinitital
A concave lens is _____
concave
What do the bright and dark fringes represent in slit interference
Bright frings: max amplitude: constructive interference
Dark: regions of destructive interference, min amplitude
Value of planck’s constant
6.626 * 10^-34 J*s
What are fieldlines?
Imaginary lines that indicate how positive test charge would move in presence of source charge
-Point away if positive source charge and towards if negative
BO3 (3-)
Borate
Positron emission/decay process
Proton converted into a neutron and beta plus partcile emitted
Advantages of HPLC
Computer control allows for sophisticated solvent gradients and temperatures to be applied to column
Circular Motion
When forces cause an object to move in a circular pathway
-Instantaneous velocity vector is always tangent to the circular path
-Object has a tendency to break out of its circular path and move in a linear direction
—Centripetal force keeps object along circular path
—In uniform circular motion, tangential force is zero
Fc =(mv^2)/r
Fc = magnitude of centripetal force, R = radius of the circular path
Resistance equation
R = pL/A
p=resistivity
L = length of resistor
A = cross sectional area
Elastic Potential Energy
Springs and other elastic systems act to store energy
-When relaxed -> equilibrium
-When a spring is stretched or compressed from equil length:
U = (1/2)kx^2
U = potential energy
x=magnitude of displacement
k=spring constant
sp hybridized C’s ppm Proton NMR
2-3
What is plating/galvanization
When in the reduction rxn, the solid precipitates onto the electrode
DC vs AC
Direct current: charge flows in one direction only
Alternating current: flow changes direction periodically
HBr
Hydrobromic acid
Electrolyte def electrochemical cells
Aq solution composed of cations and anions surrounding the electrodes
What is a blackbody
An ideal absorber of all wavelengths of light
=Appears completely black if at lower temp than it’s surrounding
Conservative Forces characteristics
- Path independent
- Do not dissipate energy
- Have potential energies associated with them
Plane polarized light def
When e-fields of all waves are oriented in the same direction
-Magnetic field vectors also parallel
Wnon conservative
When nonconvservative forces are present, total ME is not conserved
Wnonconservative = deltaE = deltaU + deltaK
Nonconservative forces are path dependent
-The longer the distance traveled, the more energy dissipated
Kinematic of projectile motion
Velocity and accelerations in the two directions are independent of each other.
Along y-axis, experience force and acceleration of gravity
- Vy will change at rate of g but Vx will remain constant
- Only time Vx is not constant is when air drag is present
How are the charged molecules stuck in the column removed in cation exchange chromatography
Salt gradient used to elute these charged molecules out of the column
Paramagnetic def
Weakly manitized in presence of extrenal magnetic field
-Dipoles align exactly with external field
Critical angle equation
arcsin(n2/n1)
Main difference between the two types of beta decay
In beta minus, neutron converted to proton leading to inc in atomic number
In beta plus/positron, proton converted into neutron so dec in atomic number
-Also difference in emission (beta minus/plus particle)
HClO3
Chloric Acid
Farad’s constant
1*10^5 C/mol e-
Mass spectrometry base, p+1 and parent peak
Parent: Indicates molecular weight of compound
p+1 peak: to right of peak and indicaates heavier isotopes
base: highest peak and corresponds to parent ion
Total mechanical energy
The sum of an object’s potential and kinetic energies
E=U+K
What is rectilinear propagation
When light travels through a medium, it does so in a straight line
When is solvation exo vs endothermic
When new interactions are stronger than the original ones -> exothermic
When weaker -> endo
Are nitrate salts soluble?
Yes, all nitrate salts are soluble
What is Chelation
When a central cation is bonded to the same ligand in multiple places
Equation for mole fraction
Xa = moles of A/Total moles of all species
Molarity eq
M = moles/L of solution
Molality eq
m = moles solute/kg of solvent
If Q
Solute continues to dissolve
-Solution is unsaturated
If Q=Ksp then what
Saturated solution
-Solution is at equilbirum
If Q>Ksp then what
Superstaurated solution
-Precipitation occurs
Common ion effect def
When common ions are in the solution, molar solubility of the salt is reduced
What is a colligative property
They are dependent on concentrations of dissolved particles
-Not the chemical identity of the dissolved particles
What is raolt’s law
As solute is added to solvent, vapor pressure dec proportionately for solvent
=Presence of solute blocks evaporation but not condensation
Boiling point relation to vapor pressure
The boiling point is temperature at which vapor pressure of liquid equals the ambient pressure
How does addition of solute alter boiling point
More solute leads to a decrease in vapor pressure
-Higher boiling point
How does addition of solute affect freezing point
Solute disturbs lattice structure needed for freezing to occur
-Decreases rate of freezing
Kinetic vs thermodynamic product
Kinetic: Higher in free energy and can form at lower temps
-Forms more quickly
Thermo: Lower in free energy and more stable
-Forms slower but more spont.
What happens to vol;ume and pressure when system is compressed
Volume dec
Pressure inc
-System moves to whichever side has less mol of gas
What is bond enthalpy
Avg energy required to break a bond between two atoms in gas phase
Is bond disssociation an endo or exothermic process
It’s endothermic
What is bond dissoviation energy measured in
kJ/mol of bonds broke
How does a closed system affect entropy
Entropy inc as energy in a closed system will spread out
Fluids def
Ability to flow and conform to shape of containers
Whya ren’t solids fluids
Because they do not flow
-They also retain their shape regardless of container
Which phases are considered fluids
liquids and gases
density equation
p=m/V
p=density
V=volume
What are the SI uits of density
kg/m^3
Water density
1 g/cm^3 or 1000 kg/m^3
Bouyant force equation
Fg = pVg
p=density
V=weight of any volume of a substance with known density
Specific Gravity
Ratio of an objects density compared to that of pure water
-Determines if an object will sink or float
Specific gravity eq
SG = p/pwater -pwater = 1g/cm^3
What are the units of specific gravity
Its a ratio so its unitless
Pressure equation
P=F/A
Units of pressure
Pascals
Pascal conversion into N and m
1 Pa = 1 N/m^2
Pascal conversion into other pressure measurements
1.013*10^5 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm
How does pressure near the surface of a fluid-containing surface compare to the pressure in the middle of the container?
Pressure exerted at any point within fluid-containing surface is the same
How does altitude affect boiling point
As altitude inc, pressure dec
-As pressure dec, boiling point dec
What is absolute hydrostatic pressure
Total pressure exerted on an object submerged into a fluid
Absolute pressure equation
P=Po + pgz Po = ambient pressure (at surface) p=density g=acceleration due to gravity z=depth of the object
What does Po usually equal
Almost always 1 atm
What is gauge pressure
Difference between absolute pressure inside tire and atmospheric pressure outside
gauge pressure eq
Pgauge = P-Patm
Pgauge=(Po + pgz)-Patm
Pascal’s principle
Fluids with volumes cannot be reduced through application of pressure
Pressure equation with multiple hydralic tubes (hydraulic lift)
P=F1/A1=F2/A2
F=force
A=cross-sectional area
Volume of fluid eq relates Area and distance
V=A1d1=A2d2
A=cross-sectional area
d=distance
Archimedes principle eq
Fbouy=pfluidVfluiddisplacedg=pfluidVsubmergedg
pfluid = density of fluid
specific gravity values in relation to floating/sinking
Any object with a SG >=1 is submerged in water
- If SG>1, 100% of object is submerged and object will sink
- If SG=1, 100% of object is submerged but object does not sink
- If SG<1, object is partially submerged and floats
Surface tension def
Liquid forms thin but srong layer at liquid’s surface
What creates surface tension
Cohesive forces -> attractive force between molecules of the same molecule
Meniscus containers relation to adhseive/cohesive forces
If menisucs, adhesive>cohesive
If backwards meniscus, cohesive>adhesive
Viscosity
Resistance of fluid to flow
Do thin fluids have high or low viscosity
Low viscosity
Do ideal fluids have high viscosity
Ideal fluids have 0 viscosity
Si units for viscosity
Pas = Ns/m^2
Laminar flow
Smooth and orderly flow
- Flow of fluids is parallel
- Layers closest to wall flow more slowly than fluids on interior
Poiseuile’s Law
Defines laminar flow thorugh a pipe
Poiseuile’s Law eq
Q=pi*r^4*deltaP/8nL n=viscosity L=length of pipe r=radius deltaP=change in pressure Q=flow rate
Turbulent flow def
Rough and disorderly flow
-Forms eddies: swirls of fluid of varying sizes
When does turbulent flow occur
When critical speed of fluid is exceeded
-Only fluids near the edge of container exhibits laminar flow
Critical speed eq
Vc=Nr*n/pD Vc=critical speed p=density n=viscosity Nr=Reynold's number(consant) D=diameter
What are streamlines
Indicate pathways followed by tiny fluid elements as they move
-Never cross each other
Continuity eq of fluid
Q=v1A1 = v2A2
v1/v2=linear speeds at point 1&2
A=cross sectional area
Bernouilli’s eq
P1+(1/2)p(v1)^2+pgh1 = P2+(1/2)p(v2)^2+pgh2
P=absolute pressure of fluid
v=linear speed
h=height of fluid
Celsius to Fahrenheit Conversion
F=(9/5)C+32
Fahrenheit to Celsius Conversion
C=(5/9)(F-32)
Celsius to Kelvin Conversion
C+273
Thermal Expansion eq
DeltaL = alphaLdeltaT
L=original length
alpha = coefficient of linear expansion
Volumetric expansion eq
DeltaV=BetaVdeltaT
Beta = coefficient of volumetric expansion
V=original volume
linear expansion coefficient relation to coefficient of volumetric expansion
Beta = 3*alpha
Coefficient of volumetric expansion is three times greater than coefficient of linear expansion
What is the system and what is the surrounding
System is what we are observing/manipulating
Surroundings: Everything else in the universe
Isolated system
Cannot exchange energy or matter with surroundings
-Total change in internal energy=0
Closed system
Capable of exchanging energy but not matter with surroundings
Open System
Can exchange both energy and matter with environment
State functions def
Only display current equilibrium state of a system
-Independent of path taken to get to a particular state
Examples of state functions
Pressure, density, temp, volume, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, internal energy
Process function def
Describe path taken to get from one state to another
-AKA path function
1st law of thermodynamics
DeltaU = Q-W
- W=WOrk done to system
- Q=energy transferred into system as heat
- DeltaU = change in system’s internal energy
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of deltaU
If positive: Temp is inc
If negative, Temp is dec
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of Q
If positive: Heat flows into system
If negative: Heat flows out of system
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of W
If positive, Work done by system
-Expanding
If negative, Work done on system
-System being compressed
2nd Law of thermodnamics Def
Objects in thermal contact exchange heat energy until both have same temp at thermal equilibrium
Heat def
Process by which energy transferred between two objects
What is the SI unit of heat
Joule
Cal to cal to J conversion
1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4184 J
Conduction def
Direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule via molecular collisions
-Need direct physical contact between objects
Examples of good/bad conductors
Metals are good
Gases are worst
Convection def
transfer of heat by physical motion of fluid over a material
- Involves flow
- Only liquids and gases
Radiation
Transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
-Can transfer energy through a vaccuum
Specific Heat def
Amount of heat energy req to raise one g of a substance by 1 degC or 1
Specific heat of water
1 Cal/gK or 4.184 J/gK
Second law of thermodynamics eq
q=mcdeltaT
-c=specific heat
m=mass
T=temperature
Equation for change in temp during phase change
Trick question, temperature does not change in a phase change
Phase change from solid to liquid molecular motion of water
Heat causes water molecules to begin to move away from each other and break free of the H-bonds between them
-Now have greater degrees of freedom of movement and PE to inc
Latent heat eq
q=mL
q=amount of heat gained/lost
m=mass of substance
L=latent heat constant
Liquid to solid term
Freezing
Melting/Fusion
Solid to liquid
Heat of fusion related to what
Melting point
Boiling/evaporation/vaporization
Liquid to gas
Condensation
gas to liquid
Sublimation
Solid to gas
Deposition
Gas to solid
Heat of vaporization related to what
Boiling point
Isothermal relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
Q=W
-Constant temp, no change in internal energy so deltaU=0
Adiabatic relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
No heat exchange, Q=0
-deltaU=-W
Isobaric relation
Constant Pressure
Isochoric aka
Isovolumetric
isochoric relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
W=0
deltaU=Q
2nd Law of thermodynamics entropy
Energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if not hindered from doing so
Entropy def
How much energy is spread out or how widely spread out energy has become
Entropy during phase change from solid to gas
Entropy inc
Entropy SI units
J/mol*K
entropy eq
Qrev/T
-Qrev=heat gained/lost in reversible process
Closed system relation to entropy
Will not be spontaneous in a closed system
- Energy spontanteous but entropy is not
- Work usually has to be done to alter it
Entropy of universe eq
DeltaSuniverse = DeltaSsystem + DeltaSsurroundings
Variables for entropy, enthalpy, Gibbs free energy
entropy = S
Gibbs Free Energy = G
Enthalpy = H
