Physics/Chem Flashcards
1
Q
What is a multiplet
A
A peak with more than four splits
2
Q
Dielectric mateiral in circuit capacitors effect
A
- When dielectric material ini circuit still connected to voltage source, charge on capacitor inc
- Voltage remains constant because of voltage source
- Capacitance inc by factor of dielectric constant
3
Q
UV spectroscopy methods
A
- UV light passed through a sample
- Absorbance is read
4
Q
HOMO vs LUMO
A
Easily excited and can absorb longer wavelengths with lower energy
HOMO: Highest occupied molecule orbitals
LUMO: Lowerst unoccupied molecular orbital
5
Q
HClO
A
Hypochlorous acid
6
Q
What is an extraction
A
Transfer of a dissolved compound from a starting solvent into a solvent with a much more soluble product
7
Q
How to calculate amount of splitting for distinct protons
A
Frequency of protons near the proton of interest + 1
-Ex: A proton has two protons in its proximity so triplet
8
Q
H3PO4
A
Phosphoric Acid
9
Q
What vectors make up Electromagnetic waves
A
Oscillating electric and magnetic field vectors perpendicular to direction of propagation
10
Q
For single slit interferences what is the equation for location of drak fringes
A
asinθ = n(wavelength) -a= width of slit n= interger indicating number of fringes
11
Q
What is the critical angle
A
The angle at which if you exceed this angle, light is internally refracted and cannot escape the medium
12
Q
Nodes vs Antinodes for pipes
A
Open at both ends: antinodes at each open end
Open at one end: node at closed end
13
Q
H2CO3
A
Carbonic Acid
14
Q
magnification equation
A
m = (-di)/(do)
m=(hi)/ho
15
Q
Change in parent nucleus in electron capture
A
Atomic number dec by 1 but mass is same
16
Q
Mechanical Advantage
A
Ratio of magnitudes of force exertion/by an object by by a simple machine to the force actually applied on the simple machine
Fout/Fin
17
Q
Amplitude
A
Max magnitude of displacement in a wave
-Only look at either crest or trough height, not both
18
Q
Cl-
A
Chloride
19
Q
Potential Energy definition
A
Energy associated with a given object’s position in space or other intrinsic qualities of the system
-The potential to do work
20
Q
HClO4
A
Perchloric acid
21
Q
What is current def
A
flow of charge between two points at different electric potentials connected by a conductor
22
Q
Translational motion/equilibrium
A
Translational motion: occurs when forces cause an object to move without any rotation.
Translational equilibrium: Exists only when vector sum of all of the forces acting on an object is equal to zero
-An object in translational equilibrium will have constant velocity (constant speed and direction)
23
Q
Capacitor def
A
Can hold charge at a particular voltage
24
Q
Weak nuclear force def
A
Contributes to stability of nucleus
-Not nearly as strong as strong nuclear force
25
Ether C-O IR freq
1050-1150
26
Electrolytic cells emf
negative so nonspont.
27
E-field magnitude when given test charge value
Fe/q
28
Beta minus decay process
Neutron conveted into a proton and beta minus particle emitted
29
What is capacitance measured in
Farads
| 1 F = 1 Coloumb/Volt
30
N-H peak IR freq
3100-3500 sharp peak
31
Permeability of free space constant
Mo = permeability of free space
| =4pi*10^-7 T*m/A
32
NO3-
Nitrate
33
Function fo chromatography
Separate and identify compounds from a complex mixture by their physica;/chemical properties
34
As more resitors are added what happens to total resistance for both parallel and series resitors
For in series: more resistors = more resistance
| For in parallel: more resistors = less resistance
35
In electrochemical cells, where do electrons travel from and where do they go
In all electrochemical cels, movement of e- is from anode to cathode
36
1st 2nd and 3rd harmonics for open pipe wavelenghts
1st: wavelength = 2L
2nd: L
3rd: 2/3L
37
If m is positive/negative what does this say about the image projected from the mirror?
Pos: image is upright
Neg: Image is inverted
38
Fractional distillation Advantages
Used to separate liquids with similar boiling points less than 25 degC apart
39
Wnon conservative
When nonconvservative forces are present, total ME is not conserved
Wnonconservative = deltaE = deltaU + deltaK
Nonconservative forces are path dependent
-The longer the distance traveled, the more energy dissipated
40
Is a convex mirror converging or diverging
Diverging
41
Period
Number of seconds per cycle
T = (1/f)
-Inverse of frequency
42
Traveling Wave
Moving wave that propagates towards the fixed end
| -If free end of stick keeps moving up and down, two waves result and interfere with each other
43
How do electrolytic cells differ from galvanic
emf opposite
- Need an external voltage source to drive decomposition of compounds
- Redox rxns don't need to be separated
44
H2CrO4
Chromic Acid
45
Wavelength
Distance from crest to crest of next wave
46
Equation for power of a lens
P=1/f
47
Doppler Effect Equation
f’ = f[(V+- Vd)/(V-+Vs)]
Upper sign: + if detector moving towards other object
minus if detector moving away from other object
Lower sign: minus if source of sound moving towards other object
+ if source moving away from object
48
What happens to the excess energy of an incident photon above threshold freq that colides with a metal atom
It is converted into Kinetic energy in the ejected e-
49
Ammeter function
MEasures current at some point within a current
| -Circuit has to be on or else V=0 A
50
When does proton deshielding occur
When a proton is bonded to a highly EN atom that pulls e- density away from the porton
- Proton cannot shield istelf from the applied magnetic field
- Has a reading further downfield
51
Is n=1 a mean light travels slower than n=1..4 for index of refraction
1 is faster
52
E-field magnitude when given stationary source charge value
kQ/r^2
53
What are the three principla rays of lenses
1. A ray that is parallel to the optical axis will bend such that it passes through the focal point on the other side
2. If a ray passes through the focal point and then hits the lens, it will come out parallel to the optical axis
3. If a ray passes through the center of the lens, it won't bend
54
Power of multiple lens equation
P=P1 + P2 + ... + Pn
55
H3BO3
Boric Acid
56
Isovolumetric/Isochocric
Constant volume
57
Electromotive force measured in?
Volts
| 1 V = 1 J/coloumb
58
What are insulators
DO not easily distribute a charge over its surface and will not transfer that charge to another neutral object
59
Steps of an extraction
1. Two solvents mixed togehter
- Two layers: aqueous/mobile phase and organic phase
2. Separatory funnel used to isolate two phases
- Denser layer sinks to bottom and removed
- Usually organic layer is on top but depends on densities
3. Bottom layer is drained multiple times for extraction
4. Solvent evaporated once desired product is isolated
60
NO2-
Nitrite
61
Capacitors in parallel eq
Cp = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn
62
Reverse phase chromatography distinction from TLC
Stationary phase is nonploar
| -This means polar molecules move up plate quicker
63
Simple Distillation steps
1. Liquid with lower boiling point vaporizes first
- Vapors rise up distillation column
2. Vapors condense in water-cooled condenser
3. End product is distillate
64
Galvanic cells standard reduction potential
The electrode with the more positive Eo red is the cathode
| -More negative Eo red is the anode
65
If anion ends in -ate, what does this mean
More oxygen
66
Dampening/Attenuation
When friction exists, decrease in amplitude of a wave is caused by an applied/non conservative force
67
CH3COOH
Acetic Acid
68
Right hand rule for direction of force between current and magnetic field
1. Fingers in direction of current
2. Wrap fingers to direction of magnetic field
3. Thumb points in direction of force
69
Equation for law of reflection
```
θ1 = θ2
θ1 = incident angle
θ2 = reflected angle
```
70
Alpha decay what is emitted
Emits alpha particle
4
He Nucleus
2
71
How is a mirror image real?
If light actually converges at the position of the image
72
IR spectroscopy measures ?
Measures molecular vibrations
| -Infrared light passed through a sample and absorbance measured
73
Electrolytic conductivity
Conductivity of solutions
74
deltaG for galvanic cells
deltaG < 0 -> rxn is spont.
75
CrO4 (2-)
Chromate
76
Relationship between radius of curvature and focal point
f = r/2
77
Current equation
I = Q/deltat
| t=time
78
TLC components
Mobile phase: thin layer of silica gel/alumina
| Paper: medium is paper composed of cellulose
79
Sp3 hybridized C's ppm Proton NMR
0-3.0
80
Anode cathode pnemonic
RED CAT AN OX
reduction = cathode
oxidation = anode
81
Snell's law equation
n1 sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
- Both 1s refer to medium light is coming from
- Both 2s refer to medium light is entering
82
Whathappens if more than one neutron is released in fission
Causes chain reaction where nearly all atoms undergo fission
83
Lorentz forces def
Fb = qvBsin(theta)
B=mag of magnetic field
Theta= smallest anle between velocity vector and magnitude of mmagnetic force vector
v=magnitude of velocity
84
Displacement vs Distance
Displacement: when an object in motion changes its position in space
- Does not account for path taken
Distance: Considers the pathway taken and is scalar
85
HClO2
Chlorous acid
86
Forced Oscillation:
Periodic varying force applied to a system
Force frequency: frequency of force causing these forced oscillations
-Amplitude of oscillations at max
87
1st 3rd and 5th harmonics for closed pipe wavelengths
1st: wavelength = 4L
2nd: = (4/3)L
3rd: = (4/5)L
88
Convergence/Divergence relation to lens thickness?
If converging, thicker in center
| If diverging, thinner in center
89
What are Newton’s three laws
1st: Fnet = ma = 0
2nd: Fnet = ma
3rd: F(AB)=-F(BA)
90
do vs di mirrors
do=distance between object and mirror
| di =distance between image and mirror
91
Goal of filtration
Isolates a solid from a liquid
92
Vacuum distillation advantages
Allows to distill compounds with higher boiling points at lower temperatures without degrading product
-Can distill liquids with boiling points over 150 degC
93
Gravity Filtration
Solvent's own weight pulls it through filter
| -Used when product of interest is in filtrate
94
How is the direction of electric field determined?
Direction is given as direction that positive test charge mves in presence of source charge
- If source positigve: repulsive force as test charge accelerates away from source charge
- If source negative: acclerates toward source charge
95
Vaccuum filtration
Solvent forced through filter by vaccuum
| -Used when solid is desired product
96
Location of center of curvature and radius for concave mirror
both are in front of mirror
97
Index of refraction equation
n = c/v
| c=speed of light
98
What directions due electrons flow with respect to a current
From lower electric potential to higher electric potential
| -Reduces electric potential energy
99
Frequency
f = number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second
| -measured in Hz Hertz
100
Nernst eq significance
When electrochemical cells deviate from standard conditions
| -Also used for concentration cells when concentration of ions is different
101
Steps of filtration
1. Liquid-Solid mix poured onto paper filter
2. Solvent passes through
=Solid left on paper is called residue
3. Filtrate is the liquid that passed through
102
If f is positive/negative what type of lens is this
Pos: convex/converging
Neg: diverging/concave
103
Aldehyde ppm Proton NMR
9-10
104
Dielectric material def
A material that insulates charge
105
Equation for wavelength and frequency from speed of light
c=f*wavelength
106
Ohmeters function
Measure resistance through a circuit
- Does not req circuit to be active
- OFten have batteries of their own
107
What is the most commonly exploited chemical property in chromatography?
Polarity
- Polar compounds adhere to polar stationary phases and elute slower
- Measure how far substances travel in given amount of time or how long it takes to elute
108
Columb's constant value
k=8.99*10^9 (N*m^2)/C^2
109
Forced Oscillation:
Periodic varying force applied to a system
Force frequency: frequency of force causing these forced oscillations
-Amplitude of oscillations at max
110
Threshold frequency ft
Min freq of light that causes ejection of an e-
- Photoelectric effect is all or nothing
- -Either exceed fT or don't
111
What types of materials are conductors
usually metals
| -Also can be ionic solutions
112
Transverse Waves
Direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to propagation
-Propagation = motion of wave
Ex: visible light, X-rays
113
Fractional distillation steps
1. Vapor rises up column and condenses back down to be evaporated agaon
2. Subsequent vaporizations condense higher up in column
3. each evaporation of condensate has higher proportion of compound with lower boiling point
4. Once top column is reached, only desired product drips down to receiving flask
114
How does vacuum distillation allow for distillation of liquids with boiling points above 150 degC
Lowers ambient pressure
| -This dec temp that liquid has to reach to have sufficient vapor pressure to boil
115
What is splitting Proton NMR
When two protons are in close proximity but not magnetically identical
116
Capacitors in series eq
1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... + 1/Cn
117
If anion ends in -ite, what will acid end in
-ous acid
| Ex: ClO2- = Chlorite -> HClO2 = Chlorous acid
118
Beta plus decay aka
Positron emission
119
When does shielding occur
If there is an e-donating group leading to proton being more upfield
120
If P is positive/negative what type of lens is this
pos: converging
neg: diverging
121
Isovolumetric/Isochocric
Constant volume
122
Nodes vs Antinodes for pipes
Open at both ends: antinodes at each open end
Open at one end: node at closed end
123
Propagation speed of a wave equation
v = f*wavelength
124
Kirchhoff's Junction Law eq
I into junction = I leaving junction
125
Work energy theorem
Direct relationship between work and energy
Wnet = deltaK = Kfinal - Kinitital
126
Pitch
Our perception of freq. of sound
| -Lower freq. have lower pitch
127
What does the distance between field lines indicate?
If they are closer together, indicates stronger field
128
Force of gravity between two objects equation
Fg = (G*m1*m2)/(r^2)
G=universal gravitational constant = 6.67*10^(-11) (N*m^2)/kg^2
r=distance between their centers of mass
129
C-H IR freq
Alkane: 2800-2999
Alkene: 3080-3140
Alkynes: 3300
Aromatic: 2900-3100
130
What is the difference in charge of protons and electrons
They have the same magnitude of charge but opposite sign
-Proton: q=+e
Electron: q= -e
131
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma rays rank in order of increasing wavelength
Gamma, X-rays, UV, Visisble, IR, Microwave, Radio
132
Longitudinal Waves
Particles of wave oscillate parallel to direction of propagation
-Causes compression/direction along direction of propagation
Ex: Sound waves
133
What is the main difference between mirrors and lenses
Lens have two surfaces that affect light path
- Light is refracted instead of being reflected
- Lenses have two focal points with one on each side
134
Ohm's Law eq
V=IR
| V=voltage, I=current, R = magnitude of resistance measured in ohms
135
CH3COO-
Acetate
136
Doppler Effect Equation
f’ = f[(V+- Vd)/(V-+Vs)]
Upper sign: + if detector moving towards other object
minus if detector moving away from other object
Lower sign: minus if source of sound moving towards other object
+ if source moving away from object
137
Pitch
Our perception of freq. of sound
| -Lower freq. have lower pitch
138
Range of hearing equation
Beta = 10log(I/I not)
Beta=sound level measured in decibels
I = intensity of sound wave
I not = threshold of hearing -> 1 x 10^-12 W/m^2
139
WHat types of electrons can be excited in UV-Vis spectroscopy
pi electrons and nonbonding e- can be excited to higher energy antibonding orbitals
140
Advantages of spectroscopy
- Only need small quantity of sample
| - Sample can still be reused after test
141
Isobaric
Constant pressure
142
HF
Hydroflouric acid
143
What is a nucleon
When photons and neutrons come together to form a nucleus
- Attracted to each other by strong nuclear force
- This force compensates for electromagnetic force between protons
144
Intensity
Average rate of energy transfer per area across a surface perpendicular to wave
Measured in W/m^2 -> kg/s^2
I = P/A
145
Resitors in parallel eq
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... + 1/Rn
146
Where are bright fringes located in slit interference
In between dark fringes
147
Angular Frequency
Measured in rads/sec
-used to look at simple harmonic motion in springs and pendulum
w = 2*pi*f = (2pi)/T
148
Rotational Equilibrium
Exists when vector sum of all torques acting on an object equals zero
Two possibilities of motion in rotational equil.
1. Object not rotating at all -> stationary
2. Object rotating with constant angular velocity
149
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, just transferred from one form to another
- Total mechanical energy does not account for any forms of energy besides K & V
- Conservation of Mechanical Energy
150
Mass defect eq
E=mc^2
c=speed of light
m=mass
151
Capacitance through dielectric material eq
C' = kC
k=dielectric constant
C' = capacitance with dielectric material present
152
Phase difference
How in step or out of step waves are
| -Ex: phase difference 1/2 wave -> 180 deg
153
Direction of current in respect to electron flow
Direction of current is opposite to electron flow
154
Isobaric
Constant pressure
155
Power
The rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another
P=(W/t) = (deltaE)/t
t=time
SI unit is watt (W) = J/s or (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
156
What does a negative magnifcation suggest?
an inverted image
157
Angular Frequency
Measured in rads/sec
-used to look at simple harmonic motion in springs and pendulum
w = 2*pi*f = (2pi)/T
158
Carbonyl IR freq
1700 sharp/deep
159
Period
Number of seconds per cycle
T = (1/f)
-Inverse of frequency
160
Parallel plate capacitor eq
C= sigma initial * (A/d)
A=area of overlap between the two plates
d = seperation of two plates
161
Constructive vs Destructive Interference
Constructive: Waves perfectly in phase
-Displacements add together and amplitude is sum of amplitudes of the waves
Destructive: Waves are perfectly out of phase
-Resultant wave is difference between the two amplitudes
162
Resistance def
Opposition with any material to movement and flow of charge
163
Mass defect def
Difference between mass of nucleus and mass of all protons and neutrons
164
Ion exchange chromatography
Beads in column coated with charged substances attract or bind compounds with opposite charge
165
Equilibrium position
Central point at which waves oscillate around
Displacement x: describes how far a particular point on a wave is from its equilibrium position
-Expressed as vector quantity
166
PO4 (3-)
Phosphate
167
Ferromagnetic def
Unpaired e= and permanent atomic magnetic dipoles oriented to have no magnetic dipole
-Strongly magnetized when exposed to magnetif field
168
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma rays rank in order of increasing freq
Radio Microwave, IR, Visible Light, UV, X-Rays, Gamma
169
WHen is an image virtual?
If light only appears to be coming from position of image but does not actually converge there
170
Change in parent nucleus in positron emission
Atomic number dec by 1 but mass does not change
171
Electric potential definition
Ratio of magnitude of a charge's electric PE to magnitidue of charge itself
V=U/q -> V=KQ/r
172
Coloumbs law eq
Fe = (kq1q1)/r^2
Fe=magnitude of electrostatic force
k=coulomb's constant
q1 and q2 are magnitude of the two charges
173
Cation exchange chromatgraphy vs anion exchange what elutes faster and what gets stuck/binds to beads
Cation: negatively charged beads bond with cations
-Anions elute faster
Anion: positively charged beads bond with anions
-Cations elute faster
174
What is SI unit of chrage
Coloumb
175
What is the speed of light
c=3.0 * 10^8 m/s
176
Standard emf equation
E o cell = Eo red, cathode - Eo red, anode
177
Sp2 hybridized C's ppm Proton NMR
1.3
178
If focal point is positive/negative what type of mirror is it
Pos: Concave and converging
Neg: Mirror is convex and diverging
179
Work definition and equation
Work is a process by which energy is transferred from one system to another
W=F*d = Fdcos(theta)
-Dot product so cos
F=magnitude of applied force
d=magnitude of displacement
theta = angle between applied force vector and displacement vector
SI unit: J
180
emf value for galcanic cells
positive
181
Transverse Waves
Direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to propagation
-Propagation = motion of wave
Ex: visible light, X-rays
182
What direction to test charges in relation to electric potential
If neg: spont move from lower electric potential to higher
If pos: spont move from higher electric potential to lower
-Positive charges want to dec electric potential and vice versa
183
Mag of magnetic field for circular loop of current-carrying wire with radius r
B=Mo*I/2r
184
When does internal reflection occur within a medium?
When the angle of refraction exceeds the critical angle
185
Order of shorthand notation for cell diagrams
Anode | anode solution (concentration) || cathode solution (conc) | cathode
186
Electromotive force def and meaning
Corresponds to voltage/electric potential of cell
- If positive, cells release energy so deltaG<0 and reaction is spont.
- If negative, cells absorb energy so delta G>0 and rxn is nonspont.
187
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, just transferred from one form to another
- Total mechanical energy does not account for any forms of energy besides K & V
- Conservation of Mechanical Energy
188
Chrmoatography basic steps
1. Sample placed onto stationary phase
2. Mobile phase runs through statonary phase
3. Sample displaced/eluted and carried through stationary phase
- Different substances migrate at different speeds based on properties shared with stationary phase
4. Each substances migration speed and distance differences allows isolation of each substance individually
189
TLC steps
1. Sample placed directly on stationary phase
- This is done by splotting or small well-defined spot of sample onto medium
2. Plate developed in developing chamber with shallow pool filled with eluent
3. Solvent creeps slowly up plate via capillary action at varying rates
4. Plate removed when solvent nears top of plate
190
Potential energy of capacitor eq
U = 1/2CV^2
191
Longitudinal Waves
Particles of wave oscillate parallel to direction of propagation
-Causes compression/direction along direction of propagation
Ex: Sound waves
192
Where is interference between waves displayed in slit interference
On the screen behind the slits
193
Fbeat equation
fbeat = |f1 - f2|
f beat = beat frequency
194
When anions form acids with names that end in -ide what suffix do they gain and what prefix do they gain
hydro- and -ic
| Ex: Flouride -> HF -> Hydroflouric acid
195
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity that an object experiences as a result of some applied force
Measured in m/s^2
196
Electrochemical cells components
Contain both oxidation and reduction reactions
| -Contain anodes and cathodes where oxidation reduction occurs
197
Friction: Static and Kinetic
Static friction: between a stationary object and the surface which it rests upon
- 0 is less than or equal to fs is less than or equal to Mus*N
—fs = static friction Ms = coefficient of static friction N = normal forces
Kinetic Friction: Exists between a sliding object and the surface over which the object slides
- fk = Muk*N
—MuK = coefficient of kinetic friction N = normal force fK = Kinetic friction
198
What does downfiled mean in proton NMR
Chemical shift to left on X-axis
| -Deshielded
199
Current measurement
Amperes
| 1 Ampere = 1 Coloumb/s
200
Mechanical Advantage
Ratio of magnitudes of force exertion/by an object by by a simple machine to the force actually applied on the simple machine
Fout/Fin
201
Lorentz forces def
Sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces
202
Velocity vs Speed
Vector measured in rate of change of displacement in a given unit of time
- Measured in m/s
Speed: Rate of actual distance traveled in a given time
203
What is a conductor
When given a chrage, distrubutes it approximately evenly upon surface of conductor
204
Change in parent nucles in gamma decay
NO change in mass or atomic number
| -Lowers energy of parent nucleus
205
emf for concentration cells
emf=0 when these concentration are equal
| -Starts off as positive
206
CO3(2-)
Carbonate
207
Size exclusion chromatography
Beads in column have tiny pores of varying sizes
- Allows small compounds to enter beads -> slows them down
- Large compounds can't fit through the pores and move around them -> elute much faster
208
Three principle rays for mirrors
1. Ray parallel to optical axis reflects back through focal point
2. Ray through the focal point reflects back parallel to the axis
3. A ray that passes through the center of the mirror reflects back at the same angle relative to the normal
209
What does spectroscopy measures
Energy diffences between possible states of a molecular system by determining frequencies of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by molecules
210
Speed of sound through a medium
v = sqrt(beta/p)
beta = bulk modulus -> measure of medium’s resistance to compression
p = intensity of a the medium
-Sound travels faster through a solid
211
What happens when e- jumps from lower energy to higher energy orbital?
It absorbs a photon of light
212
Aldehydes CHO IR freq
2700-2900
213
Capacitrance eq
C = Q/V
| Q=charge, V = coltage
214
HNO3
Nitric acid
215
Standing Wave
Both ends are fixed and wave fluctuation is in form of fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points on the length of a string
216
Effects of temperature on resistance
Most Conductors have greater resistance at high temps
217
Spherical aberration def
Blurring of periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection of parallel lens at edge of mirror or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at edge of lens
218
Alpha decay what is change in parent element
Mass decreases by 4
| Atomic number decreases by 2
219
What happens when e- falls from higher energy to lower energy orbital
It emits a photon
220
Potential Energy definition
Energy associated with a given object’s position in space or other intrinsic qualities of the system
-The potential to do work
221
What can be used to measure emf of galvanic cells
A voltmeter can be connected
222
Gravitational potential energy
Object’s position with respects to some level identified as a datum
-Ground or the zero potential energy position
U=mgh
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height of object above datum
223
HCl
Hydrochloric acid
224
Nernst eq
```
Ecell = (Eo cell) - (RT/nF)(lnQ)
Ecell = emf under nonstanard conditions
R=ideal gas constant
T=temp in K
n = moles of e-
Q=rxn quotient
```
225
Electrodisposition eq
mol M = It/nF
I = current, F = faraday's constant 10^5 C/mol e-
n = number of e- equivalents for specific metal ion
mol M = amount of metal ion deposited on electrode
226
Open pipe frequency equation
f=(nv)/2L
227
Voltmeter function
Measures voltage drop between two points in circuit
- Also req circuit to eb on
- They have large resistance
228
What is released in electron capture
A neutrino
229
Is high ion concentration of a solution a good or bad conductor
Good conductor
230
What is the strongers of the four fundamental forces
Strong nuclear force
231
When does a fluorescent substance glow wit visible light
When it is excited with UV radiation
- These high freq radiation excites e-
- The excited e- return to original state in a few steps
- Photons of lower freq emitted at each step
232
Newton units in kg, m, s
Newton N = kg*m/s^2
233
Affinity chromatography
Protein of interest bound by creating a column with high affinity for that protein
- Coat beads with a receptor that binds protein or specific antibody to protein
- Once protein retained, can be eluted out by washing column to free receptor
234
Mass
Measure of a body’s inertia
-Scalar quantity with magnitude only
SI unit: Kg and is independent of gravity
235
Focal distance equation
1/do + 1/di = 1/f
236
Kirchhoff's Loop rule
Around any closed circuit loop, sum of voltage sources equal to sum of voltage potential drops
-No excess is created or disappears, just changes form to another form of energy
237
Gamma decay process
Emission of gamma rays
238
Metallic conductivity
Allow free flow of electric charge within them
239
Standing Wave
Both ends are fixed and wave fluctuation is in form of fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points on the length of a string
240
What is a reverse extraction
Removes unwanted impurities
| -Uses small amount of solvent
241
What is power of a lens measured in
diopters
242
Partially constructive/destructive
When waves aren’t perfectly in/out of phase
| -If nearly in phase -> mostly add together and vice versa
243
Resistors in series eq
Rs = R1 + R2 + ... Rn
244
Nodes vs Antinodes
Nodes: points in the wave that remain at rest
-Amplitude always equals zero
Antinodes: points midway between nodes that fluctuate with max amplitude
245
As a slit narrows, does light entering it diffract more or less
MOre
246
How are unknown compounds identified in TLC
Retardation factor: Rf = (distance spot moved)/(distance solvent front moved)
247
Ketone Carbonyl IR freq
1700-1750
248
Diamagnetic def
Atoms with no unpaired e- and no net magnetic field
| -Slighly repelled by magnet
249
If do is positive/negative where is the object located in relation to the mirror
Positive: object in front of mirror
Negative: object behind mirror (rare)
250
When will light bend towards the normal after entering a new medium?
If the new medium has a higher index of refraction
251
What are the three kinematic equations:
No displacement: V = Vinitial + at
No final V:
x = Vinitial*t + (1/2)*(a(t^2)
No time: Vfinal^2 = Vinitial^2 + 2ax
When motion is vertical, can substitute y instead of x for displacement
g = a = 10m/s^2
252
Energy of photon eqution
E=hf
h=planck's constant
f=freq of light
253
Colomb's constant equation
k=1/4pi(sigma o )
| sigma o: permittiveity of free space: 8.85*10^-12
254
Frequency
f = number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second
| -measured in Hz Hertz
255
Equation for kinetic energy in ejected e- during photoelectric effect
Kmax = hf-W
W=work function: min energy req to eject e-
W=hfT where fT = threshold freq
256
What is binding energy
Allows nucleons to bind together in nucleus
257
F-
Flouride
258
What are the four fundamental forces
strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electrostatic, gravitational
259
Amplitude
Max magnitude of displacement in a wave
| -Only look at either crest or trough height, not both
260
Voltage drop eq for resitors in parallel
Vp = V1 = V2 = ... + Vn
261
Standard reduction potential meaning
If positive, tendency for reduction, if negative, tendency for oxidation
262
A convex lens is ____
converging
263
Beta decay most often refers to which type of decay
Beta minus decay
264
Gravitational potential energy
Object’s position with respects to some level identified as a datum
-Ground or the zero potential energy position
U=mgh
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height of object above datum
265
Br-
Bromide
266
closed pipe freq equation
f=nv/4L
267
Fusion vs fission
Fusion: small nuclei combining to form large nucleus
-Less common as power plant than fission
Fission: Process by which large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei
-Rarely occurs spontaneously
-Can be induced via absorption of lower energy neutron
268
Shock Wave
When object producing sound is above speed of sound and waves build upon another
- Creates much larger amplitude at that point
- Can cause physical disturbances when passing through other objects
- Creates a sonic boom
269
Column chromatography differences from TLC
1. Entire column filled with silica/aluminum beads as stationary phase
- Allows for much greater separation
2. Uses gravity to move solvent and compounds down column
- Solvent can also be forced down with gas pressure
270
Partially constructive/destructive
When waves aren’t perfectly in/out of phase
| -If nearly in phase -> mostly add together and vice versa
271
Voltage drop eq for resistors in series
Vs = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn
272
What is the center of curvature?
Point on optical axis located a distance equal to radius of curvature from vertex of mirror
273
Fundamental unit of charge
e=1.6*10^-19 C
274
What differences does distillation leverage to separate compounds?
Boiling points
| -Separates two liguids via evaporation/condensation
275
Speed of sound through a medium
v = sqrt(beta/p)
beta = bulk modulus -> measure of medium’s resistance to compression
p = intensity of a the medium
-Sound travels faster through a solid
276
What is resistivity measured in
ohm*m
277
What is the rule of extractions
Like dissolves like
| -Polar dissolves polar etc
278
Loop rule eq
Vsource = V drop
279
H2SO4
Sulfuric Acid
280
Repulsive forces are between charges of what type?
Same sign
281
What materials are in between conductors and insulators in terms of resistance
Resistors
282
Do waves with a lower frequency have a higher or lower energy
Lower
| -Energy of photon and freq are in direct proportion with each other
283
closed pipe wavelength equation
wavelength = 4L/n
| n=odd integers
284
If di is postiive/negative where is the image in relation to the mirror
Positive: image in front of mirror and real
Neg: Image is behind mirror and virtual
285
Weight Fg
Measure of gravitational force on an object’s mass
- Vector quantity measured in newtons N
- It is a force
```
Fg = m*g
Fg = weight of the object, m = mass of object
g = acceleration due to gravity (usually 9.8 m/s^2 = 10)
```
286
Lensmaker's equation
1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2)
| n=index of refraction, r1 and r2 = radius of curvature for lens
287
Function of salt bridge in electrochemical cells
Permits exchange of cations and anions
288
SO4 (2-)
Sulfate
289
Isotopic notation
```
A
X
Z
A=mass number
X=element
Z=atomic number
```
290
Location of center and radius of curvature for convex mirror
Both are behind the mirror
291
Similarities between column chromatography and TLC
Same principles: faster elution = more similarities to stationary phase
292
ClO3-
Chlorate
293
When does the photoelectric effect occur
When light beam with frequencies above threshold frequency of metal
294
What types of materials are insulators
Most nonmetals
295
What drives movement of e- for concentration cells
Concentration gradient results in potential difference between the two cells drives movement of e-
296
Mag of magnetic field for straight current-carrying wire
B=MoI/2pir
B=magnetic field
Mo=permeability of free space
I=current
297
ClO- name
Hypochlorite
298
If anion ends in -ite what does this mean
Less oxygen
299
What is a plane mirror and what type of images does it create?
It is a flat reflective surface with neither converging or diverging of reflected light rays
-Only creates virtual images
300
Elastic Potential Energy
Springs and other elastic systems act to store energy
-When relaxed -> equilibrium
-When a spring is stretched or compressed from equil length:
U = (1/2)kx^2
U = potential energy
x=magnitude of displacement
k=spring constant
301
Power equation
P=IV
P=I^2 * R
P = V^2/R
-Can use V=IR to substitute into these equations
302
Dampening/Attenuation
When friction exists, decrease in amplitude of a wave is caused by an applied/non conservative force
303
Gas chromatography
Mobile phase is a gas and stationary phase is crushed metal at foot of column
- Column coiled and kept inside an oven to control temp
1. Mixture injected into columna nd vaporized
2. Gaseous compounds travel through column at different rates
3. Compounds registered by detector that records them as peaks on a chart
- Usually then injected into mass spectrometer
304
Recrystallization
Further purifies crysal in solution
305
Recrystallization steps
1. Dissolve product in minimum amount of hot solvent and let it recrystallize as it cools
- Solvent is soluble to product only at high temps
2. When solution cools, only desired product is recrystallized without impurities
306
Equilibrium position
Central point at which waves oscillate around
Displacement x: describes how far a particular point on a wave is from its equilibrium position
-Expressed as vector quantity
307
Electrolytic cells standard reduction potential
Electrode with more positive Eo red is anode/oxidized
308
Typical Speed of sound
In 20 degC air -> 343 m/s
309
Fingerprint region
1500-400 cm^-1 range
| -No need to identify substances here
310
What compounds cannot be separated via simple distillation
Only can be used to separate liquids that boil below 150 degC and have at least 25 degC difference in boiling points
311
Kirchhoff's Junction law
At any point/junction in circuit, sum of currents into the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving
312
Concentration Cell def
Type of galvanic cell
- Still two half cells connected by conductive material -> spont. ox/red
- Diff from galvanic cells because two electrodes are chemically identical
313
Typical Speed of sound
In 20 degC air -> 343 m/s
314
What are the axes in a typical NMR plot
Frequency and absorption of energy
315
Carboxylic Acid ppm Proton NMR
10.5-12
316
Meaning of lines in shorthand notation of cell diagrams
One line denotes phase boundary
| Double vertical line denotes salt bridge
317
Dispersion definition
When various wavelengths of light separate from each other
318
Position of dark fringes equation on the screen
dsinθ = (n+1/2)*wavelength
-d=distance between two slits
θ=angle between line drawn from mid point between two slits to dark fringe and the normal
n= number of fringes
319
WHat is used to calibrate NMR
TMS is the standard peak at 0 ppm
| -Make sure to skip TMS peak when counting
320
Proton NMR what is height of each peak proportional to
Number of protons it contains
321
What units are magnetic fields measured in
Teslas
| T=N*s/m*C
322
Is a concave mirror converging or diverging
Converging
323
What is the photoelectric effect
When a metal atom emits an e-
| -Produces net charge flow per unit time -> current
324
Total mechanical energy
The sum of an object’s potential and kinetic energies
E=U+K
325
Infrasonic vs Ultrasonic
Infra: below 20 Hz
Ultra: 20,000 Hz
326
Galvanic cells aka
Volatic cells
327
What is preparative TLC
Larger scale purifications
| -Larger spots split into bands of individual compounds and scraped off and washed to yield pure compounds
328
Kinetic Energy Equation
K=(1/2)mv^2
SI units: J = (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
329
What materials have 0 resistance and which ones have high resistance?
Conductors have no resistance
| Insulateors have high resistance
330
Propagation speed of a wave equation
v = f*wavelength
331
Dieelectric material in isolated capacitors effect
Voltage across capacitor dec
- Dielectric material shields opposite charges from each other
- If voltage dec, capacitance inc by factor of dielectric constant
332
deltaG relation to standard E cell
```
deltaGo = -nF(Eo cell)
-deltaGo = standard free energy change
Eo cell = standard emf of cell
-F = Faraday Constant (make sure it is in J/V)
n=# of e-
```
333
Where are ammeter and voltmeters wired within a circuit
Ammeter inserted in series
| Voltmeters are wired in parallel to the two points
334
Standard reduction potential measured under what conditions?
Standard conditions: 25 degC, 1 atm, 1 M conc
335
Conservative Forces characteristics
- Path independent
- Do not dissipate energy
- Have potential energies associated with them
336
ClO2- name
Chlorite
337
Armoatic Ring ppm Proton NMR
6-8.5
338
Infrasonic vs Ultrasonic
Infra: below 20 Hz
Ultra: 20,000 Hz
339
When does movement of e-/current stop in concentration cells
Whenn concentration of ionic species in the half cells are equal
340
ClO4-
Perchlorate
341
Beta minus change in parent nucleus
Atomic number inc by 1 but mass does not change
342
Constructive vs Destructive Interference
Constructive: Waves perfectly in phase
-Displacements add together and amplitude is sum of amplitudes of the waves
Destructive: Waves are perfectly out of phase
-Resultant wave is difference between the two amplitudes
343
Magnification of multiple lens equation
m = m1*m2*...*mn
344
HNO2
Nitrous acid
345
Work definition and equation
Work is a process by which energy is transferred from one system to another
W=F*d = Fdcos(theta)
-Dot product so cos
F=magnitude of applied force
d=magnitude of displacement
theta = angle between applied force vector and displacement vector
SI unit: J
346
Voltage potential difference eq
```
DeltaV = Vb-Va = Wab/q
-Wab = work needed to move test charge through electric field from a to b
```
347
Dot Product vs Cross Product
A*B = |A||B|cos(theta) -> scalar
AxB = |A||B|sin(theta) -> vector
348
Integration definition Proton NMR
Area under each of the peaks
349
POlarizers def
Allow only with an electric field pointing in a particular direction to pass through
350
Electron capture process
When unstable radionuclides capture an inner electron that combines with a proton to form a neutron
351
What direction does current run in electrochemical cells
Runs from cathode to anode
| -This is the flow of protons and is opposite to the flow of e-
352
Vector vs Scalar
Vectors area both magnitude and direction.
| Scalar: Magnitude but no direction
353
How does HPLC differ from GC
Liquid mobile phase and computerized
354
Nodes vs Antinodes
Nodes: points in the wave that remain at rest
-Amplitude always equals zero
Antinodes: points midway between nodes that fluctuate with max amplitude
355
high performance liquid chromatography
Eleunt travels through defined composition
| -Stationary phase dependent on target molecule and quantity needed to be purified
356
Traveling Wave
Moving wave that propagates towards the fixed end
| -If free end of stick keeps moving up and down, two waves result and interfere with each other
357
Trends of TLC for polar/nonpolar compounds
Nonpolar compounds dissolve more quickly in organic solvent and rise up plate quicker
Polar compounds is opposite
358
HPLC steps
1. Small sample injected into column
2. Separation occurs as it flows through
3. Compounds pass through detector and collected as solvent flows out
359
deltaG under nonstandard conditions eq
deltaG = deltaGo + RTlnQ
360
Exponential decay eq
n=n initial*e^-(decay constant)*t
n=amount of sample remaining
n initial: number of undecayed nuclei at t=0
t=time
decay constant: represented by lambda, is always given or solved for
361
Electric PE eq
U=KQq/r
| -Measured in J
362
Power
The rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another
P=(W/t) = (deltaE)/t
t=time
SI unit is watt (W) = J/s or (kg*m^2)/(s^2)
363
Rotational Motion
When forces are applied against an object that cause it to rotate around a fixed pivot point -> fulcrum.
Torque generated by application of force at a distance from the fulcrum.
-Torque generates rotational motion
T = rxF = rFsin(theta)
T = torque, r = length of lever arm, F = magnitude of force, theta = angle between lever arm and force vectors
364
Open Pipe wavelength equation
```
wavelength = (2L)/n
-n = any integer
```
365
Phase difference
How in step or out of step waves are
| -Ex: phase difference 1/2 wave -> 180 deg
366
What is the index of refraction for air?
1
367
Simplified Nernst Eq
Ecell = (Eo cell) - (.06/n)logQ
| - Can use if T=298K
368
Wavelength
Distance from crest to crest of next wave
369
If anion ends in -ate what will acid end in
-ic acid
| Ex: ClO3- = chlorate -> HCLO3 = Chloric acid
370
Attractive forces are between charges of what type?
Different charge
371
What IR frequencies are hydroxyl groups found
Alcohols: 3100-3500 borad peak
| Carboxylic acid: Broad 2800-3200
372
Work energy theorem
Direct relationship between work and energy
Wnet = deltaK = Kfinal - Kinitital
373
A concave lens is _____
concave
374
What do the bright and dark fringes represent in slit interference
Bright frings: max amplitude: constructive interference
| Dark: regions of destructive interference, min amplitude
375
Value of planck's constant
6.626 * 10^-34 J*s
376
What are fieldlines?
Imaginary lines that indicate how positive test charge would move in presence of source charge
-Point away if positive source charge and towards if negative
377
BO3 (3-)
Borate
378
Positron emission/decay process
Proton converted into a neutron and beta plus partcile emitted
379
Advantages of HPLC
Computer control allows for sophisticated solvent gradients and temperatures to be applied to column
380
Circular Motion
When forces cause an object to move in a circular pathway
-Instantaneous velocity vector is always tangent to the circular path
-Object has a tendency to break out of its circular path and move in a linear direction
—Centripetal force keeps object along circular path
—In uniform circular motion, tangential force is zero
Fc =(mv^2)/r
Fc = magnitude of centripetal force, R = radius of the circular path
381
Resistance equation
R = pL/A
p=resistivity
L = length of resistor
A = cross sectional area
382
Elastic Potential Energy
Springs and other elastic systems act to store energy
-When relaxed -> equilibrium
-When a spring is stretched or compressed from equil length:
U = (1/2)kx^2
U = potential energy
x=magnitude of displacement
k=spring constant
383
sp hybridized C's ppm Proton NMR
2-3
384
What is plating/galvanization
When in the reduction rxn, the solid precipitates onto the electrode
385
DC vs AC
Direct current: charge flows in one direction only
| Alternating current: flow changes direction periodically
386
HBr
Hydrobromic acid
387
Electrolyte def electrochemical cells
Aq solution composed of cations and anions surrounding the electrodes
388
What is a blackbody
An ideal absorber of all wavelengths of light
| =Appears completely black if at lower temp than it's surrounding
389
Conservative Forces characteristics
- Path independent
- Do not dissipate energy
- Have potential energies associated with them
390
Plane polarized light def
When e-fields of all waves are oriented in the same direction
-Magnetic field vectors also parallel
391
Wnon conservative
When nonconvservative forces are present, total ME is not conserved
Wnonconservative = deltaE = deltaU + deltaK
Nonconservative forces are path dependent
-The longer the distance traveled, the more energy dissipated
392
Kinematic of projectile motion
Velocity and accelerations in the two directions are independent of each other.
Along y-axis, experience force and acceleration of gravity
- Vy will change at rate of g but Vx will remain constant
- Only time Vx is not constant is when air drag is present
393
How are the charged molecules stuck in the column removed in cation exchange chromatography
Salt gradient used to elute these charged molecules out of the column
394
Paramagnetic def
Weakly manitized in presence of extrenal magnetic field
| -Dipoles align exactly with external field
395
Critical angle equation
arcsin(n2/n1)
396
Main difference between the two types of beta decay
In beta minus, neutron converted to proton leading to inc in atomic number
In beta plus/positron, proton converted into neutron so dec in atomic number
-Also difference in emission (beta minus/plus particle)
397
HClO3
Chloric Acid
398
Farad's constant
1*10^5 C/mol e-
399
Mass spectrometry base, p+1 and parent peak
Parent: Indicates molecular weight of compound
p+1 peak: to right of peak and indicaates heavier isotopes
base: highest peak and corresponds to parent ion
400
Total mechanical energy
The sum of an object’s potential and kinetic energies
E=U+K
401
What is rectilinear propagation
When light travels through a medium, it does so in a straight line
402
When is solvation exo vs endothermic
When new interactions are stronger than the original ones -> exothermic
When weaker -> endo
403
Are nitrate salts soluble?
Yes, all nitrate salts are soluble
404
What is Chelation
When a central cation is bonded to the same ligand in multiple places
405
Equation for mole fraction
Xa = moles of A/Total moles of all species
406
Molarity eq
M = moles/L of solution
407
Molality eq
m = moles solute/kg of solvent
408
If Q
Solute continues to dissolve
| -Solution is unsaturated
409
If Q=Ksp then what
Saturated solution
| -Solution is at equilbirum
410
If Q>Ksp then what
Superstaurated solution
| -Precipitation occurs
411
Common ion effect def
When common ions are in the solution, molar solubility of the salt is reduced
412
What is a colligative property
They are dependent on concentrations of dissolved particles
| -Not the chemical identity of the dissolved particles
413
What is raolt's law
As solute is added to solvent, vapor pressure dec proportionately for solvent
=Presence of solute blocks evaporation but not condensation
414
Boiling point relation to vapor pressure
The boiling point is temperature at which vapor pressure of liquid equals the ambient pressure
415
How does addition of solute alter boiling point
More solute leads to a decrease in vapor pressure
| -Higher boiling point
416
How does addition of solute affect freezing point
Solute disturbs lattice structure needed for freezing to occur
-Decreases rate of freezing
417
Kinetic vs thermodynamic product
Kinetic: Higher in free energy and can form at lower temps
-Forms more quickly
Thermo: Lower in free energy and more stable
-Forms slower but more spont.
418
What happens to vol;ume and pressure when system is compressed
Volume dec
Pressure inc
-System moves to whichever side has less mol of gas
419
What is bond enthalpy
Avg energy required to break a bond between two atoms in gas phase
420
Is bond disssociation an endo or exothermic process
It's endothermic
421
What is bond dissoviation energy measured in
kJ/mol of bonds broke
422
How does a closed system affect entropy
Entropy inc as energy in a closed system will spread out
423
Fluids def
Ability to flow and conform to shape of containers
424
Whya ren't solids fluids
Because they do not flow
| -They also retain their shape regardless of container
425
Which phases are considered fluids
liquids and gases
426
density equation
p=m/V
p=density
V=volume
427
What are the SI uits of density
kg/m^3
428
Water density
1 g/cm^3 or 1000 kg/m^3
429
Bouyant force equation
Fg = pVg
p=density
V=weight of any volume of a substance with known density
430
Specific Gravity
Ratio of an objects density compared to that of pure water
| -Determines if an object will sink or float
431
Specific gravity eq
```
SG = p/pwater
-pwater = 1g/cm^3
```
432
What are the units of specific gravity
Its a ratio so its unitless
433
Pressure equation
P=F/A
434
Units of pressure
Pascals
435
Pascal conversion into N and m
1 Pa = 1 N/m^2
436
Pascal conversion into other pressure measurements
1.013*10^5 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm
437
How does pressure near the surface of a fluid-containing surface compare to the pressure in the middle of the container?
Pressure exerted at any point within fluid-containing surface is the same
438
How does altitude affect boiling point
As altitude inc, pressure dec
| -As pressure dec, boiling point dec
439
What is absolute hydrostatic pressure
Total pressure exerted on an object submerged into a fluid
440
Absolute pressure equation
```
P=Po + pgz
Po = ambient pressure (at surface)
p=density
g=acceleration due to gravity
z=depth of the object
```
441
What does Po usually equal
Almost always 1 atm
442
What is gauge pressure
Difference between absolute pressure inside tire and atmospheric pressure outside
443
gauge pressure eq
Pgauge = P-Patm
| Pgauge=(Po + pgz)-Patm
444
Pascal's principle
Fluids with volumes cannot be reduced through application of pressure
445
Pressure equation with multiple hydralic tubes (hydraulic lift)
P=F1/A1=F2/A2
F=force
A=cross-sectional area
446
Volume of fluid eq relates Area and distance
V=A1d1=A2d2
A=cross-sectional area
d=distance
447
Archimedes principle eq
Fbouy=pfluid*Vfluiddisplaced*g=pfluidVsubmergedg
| pfluid = density of fluid
448
specific gravity values in relation to floating/sinking
Any object with a SG >=1 is submerged in water
- If SG>1, 100% of object is submerged and object will sink
- If SG=1, 100% of object is submerged but object does not sink
- If SG<1, object is partially submerged and floats
449
Surface tension def
Liquid forms thin but srong layer at liquid's surface
450
What creates surface tension
Cohesive forces -> attractive force between molecules of the same molecule
451
Meniscus containers relation to adhseive/cohesive forces
If menisucs, adhesive>cohesive
| If backwards meniscus, cohesive>adhesive
452
Viscosity
Resistance of fluid to flow
453
Do thin fluids have high or low viscosity
Low viscosity
454
Do ideal fluids have high viscosity
Ideal fluids have 0 viscosity
455
Si units for viscosity
Pa*s = N*s/m^2
456
Laminar flow
Smooth and orderly flow
- Flow of fluids is parallel
- Layers closest to wall flow more slowly than fluids on interior
457
Poiseuile's Law
Defines laminar flow thorugh a pipe
458
Poiseuile's Law eq
```
Q=pi*r^4*deltaP/8nL
n=viscosity
L=length of pipe
r=radius
deltaP=change in pressure
Q=flow rate
```
459
Turbulent flow def
Rough and disorderly flow
| -Forms eddies: swirls of fluid of varying sizes
460
When does turbulent flow occur
When critical speed of fluid is exceeded
| -Only fluids near the edge of container exhibits laminar flow
461
Critical speed eq
```
Vc=Nr*n/pD
Vc=critical speed
p=density
n=viscosity
Nr=Reynold's number(consant)
D=diameter
```
462
What are streamlines
Indicate pathways followed by tiny fluid elements as they move
-Never cross each other
463
Continuity eq of fluid
Q=v1A1 = v2A2
v1/v2=linear speeds at point 1&2
A=cross sectional area
464
Bernouilli's eq
P1+(1/2)p(v1)^2+pgh1 = P2+(1/2)p(v2)^2+pgh2
P=absolute pressure of fluid
v=linear speed
h=height of fluid
465
Celsius to Fahrenheit Conversion
F=(9/5)C+32
466
Fahrenheit to Celsius Conversion
C=(5/9)(F-32)
467
Celsius to Kelvin Conversion
C+273
468
Thermal Expansion eq
DeltaL = alpha*L*deltaT
L=original length
alpha = coefficient of linear expansion
469
Volumetric expansion eq
DeltaV=Beta*V*deltaT
Beta = coefficient of volumetric expansion
V=original volume
470
linear expansion coefficient relation to coefficient of volumetric expansion
Beta = 3*alpha
| Coefficient of volumetric expansion is three times greater than coefficient of linear expansion
471
What is the system and what is the surrounding
System is what we are observing/manipulating
| Surroundings: Everything else in the universe
472
Isolated system
Cannot exchange energy or matter with surroundings
| -Total change in internal energy=0
473
Closed system
Capable of exchanging energy but not matter with surroundings
474
Open System
Can exchange both energy and matter with environment
475
State functions def
Only display current equilibrium state of a system
| -Independent of path taken to get to a particular state
476
Examples of state functions
Pressure, density, temp, volume, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, internal energy
477
Process function def
Describe path taken to get from one state to another
| -AKA path function
478
1st law of thermodynamics
DeltaU = Q-W
- W=WOrk done to system
- Q=energy transferred into system as heat
- DeltaU = change in system's internal energy
479
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of deltaU
If positive: Temp is inc
| If negative, Temp is dec
480
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of Q
If positive: Heat flows into system
| If negative: Heat flows out of system
481
1st law of thermodynamics, sign conventions of W
If positive, Work done by system
-Expanding
If negative, Work done on system
-System being compressed
482
2nd Law of thermodnamics Def
Objects in thermal contact exchange heat energy until both have same temp at thermal equilibrium
483
Heat def
Process by which energy transferred between two objects
484
What is the SI unit of heat
Joule
485
Cal to cal to J conversion
1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4184 J
486
Conduction def
Direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule via molecular collisions
-Need direct physical contact between objects
487
Examples of good/bad conductors
Metals are good
| Gases are worst
488
Convection def
transfer of heat by physical motion of fluid over a material
- Involves flow
- Only liquids and gases
489
Radiation
Transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
| -Can transfer energy through a vaccuum
490
Specific Heat def
Amount of heat energy req to raise one g of a substance by 1 degC or 1
491
Specific heat of water
1 Cal/g*K or 4.184 J/g*K
492
Second law of thermodynamics eq
q=mcdeltaT
-c=specific heat
m=mass
T=temperature
493
Equation for change in temp during phase change
Trick question, temperature does not change in a phase change
494
Phase change from solid to liquid molecular motion of water
Heat causes water molecules to begin to move away from each other and break free of the H-bonds between them
-Now have greater degrees of freedom of movement and PE to inc
495
Latent heat eq
q=mL
q=amount of heat gained/lost
m=mass of substance
L=latent heat constant
496
Liquid to solid term
Freezing
497
Melting/Fusion
Solid to liquid
498
Heat of fusion related to what
Melting point
499
Boiling/evaporation/vaporization
Liquid to gas
500
Condensation
gas to liquid
501
Sublimation
Solid to gas
502
Deposition
Gas to solid
503
Heat of vaporization related to what
Boiling point
504
Isothermal relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
Q=W
| -Constant temp, no change in internal energy so deltaU=0
505
Adiabatic relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
No heat exchange, Q=0
| -deltaU=-W
506
Isobaric relation
Constant Pressure
507
Isochoric aka
Isovolumetric
508
isochoric relation to 1st law of thermodynamics
W=0
| deltaU=Q
509
2nd Law of thermodynamics entropy
Energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if not hindered from doing so
510
Entropy def
How much energy is spread out or how widely spread out energy has become
511
Entropy during phase change from solid to gas
Entropy inc
512
Entropy SI units
J/mol*K
513
entropy eq
Qrev/T
| -Qrev=heat gained/lost in reversible process
514
Closed system relation to entropy
Will not be spontaneous in a closed system
- Energy spontanteous but entropy is not
- Work usually has to be done to alter it
515
Entropy of universe eq
DeltaSuniverse = DeltaSsystem + DeltaSsurroundings
516
Variables for entropy, enthalpy, Gibbs free energy
entropy = S
Gibbs Free Energy = G
Enthalpy = H
