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Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

How often does menstruation occur?

A

One egg per month ovulated into peritoneal sac

  • Drawn into fallopian tube
  • Fallopian tubes have cilia which propel egg forward to uterus
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2
Q

Portal system definition

A

Two capillary beds in series through which blood travels before returning to the heart

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3
Q

Paracrine signals

A

Signals act on cells in a certain area

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4
Q

Calcitonin effect

A

Dec. Ca absorption from gut, inc storage of Ca in bone, inc Ca excretion from kidneys

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5
Q

Hook (flagella)

A

Connects filament and basal body so that as basal body rotates, it exerts torque on filament and spins/propels bacterium forward

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6
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

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7
Q

How are primary germ layers formed?

A

When cells migrate from blastocoel remains

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8
Q

Binary fission

A

Asexual reproduction of prokaryotes

  • Circular chromosome attaches to cell wall while replicating
  • Produces two identical daughter cells
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9
Q

Founder effect

A

extreme case of genetic drift when smalll population finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations
-Inbreeding leads to homozygosity and inc prevalence of homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes

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10
Q

Function of cell wall

A

Forms outer barrier of cell

  • Provides structure
  • Controls movement of solutes in/out
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11
Q

WHat are fingerhails and nails composed off

A

Keratin

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12
Q

Mineralcorticoids function

A

Salt and water homeostasis in kidneys

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13
Q

Dizygotic Twins process of fertilization

A

Two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle

-Fertilized by two different sperm

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14
Q

Where do solutes reabsorbed in PCT go?

A

They enter the insterstitium then pass through the vasa recta and return to the bloodstream

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15
Q

What hormone affects TSH release?

A

TRH

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16
Q

How is fertilzation by multiple sperm stopped?

A

After penetration by a sperm, cortical reaction occurs -> release of Ca2+ ions

  • Depolarizes membrane
  • Inc metabolic rate of newly formed diploid zygote
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17
Q

What are the three processes kidney uses to regulate blood volume and osmolarity

A

filtration, secretion, reabsorption

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18
Q

Pleural Cavity of Lungs

A

Filled with lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes

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19
Q

How to germ cells divide?

A

Meiosis

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20
Q

What type of cells are germ cells?

A

Haploid

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21
Q

Luteal phase

A

LH causes ruptured follicle to form corpus luteum

  • Prog levels start to rise
  • Prog maintains uterine lining for sperm implantation
  • Estrogen levels remain low
  • High levels of prog cause negative feedback of GnRH, LH, FSH -> prevents ovulation of multiple eggs
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22
Q

Differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis

A
  1. limited supply of stem cells
    - By birth, all oogonia are primary oocytes and arrested in prophase1
  2. oogeneis creates one oocyte instead of four mature spermatocytes
    - Secondary oocyte arrested in metaphase II until fertilization
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23
Q

When is the second checkpoint of the cell cycle and what is checked?

A

End of G2

  • Ensures DNA replication had no errors
  • Ready to enter mitosis
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24
Q

How do viruses reproduce?

A

After infection, translation of viral genetic material must occur for reproduction

  • DNA viruses have to enter nucleus before transcription and translation
  • Positive sense viruses stay in cytoplasm for direct translation
  • Once viral genome is replicated, can be packaged in capsid to infect other cells
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25
Q

Adrenal glands location

A

On top of kidney

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26
Q

Prostate gland and seminal vesicles work together to?

A

Give seminal fluid mildly alkaline properties so sperm can survive in relative acidity of female reproductive tract

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27
Q

Death phase of bacterial growth

A

Once bacteria have exceeded ability/resources of environment to support them
-Mass death of cells

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28
Q

What causes parturition/pregnancy

A

Accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle and coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin

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29
Q

Loop of henle located in what region of kidney?

A

Descends and ascends in outer/inner medulla

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30
Q

What vascular structures are contained in the umbilical cord?

A

Two arteries and one vein

  • Arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste back to mother
  • Vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients to baby
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31
Q

What do FLAT and PEG mean in FLAT PEG

A

FLAT: tropic hormones
PEG: direct hormones

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32
Q

Neo-darwinism changes to include recombinatino

A

Differential reproduction: populations evolve not individuals
-When recombination or mutation results in favorable change, change is more likely to be passed on to next generation

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33
Q

What is Oogenesis

A

Production of female gametes

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34
Q

What hormone does the heart release

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide

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35
Q

Equations of harvey weinberg equilibrium

A 
p+q=1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
-p=dominant allele freq
-q=recessive allele freq
-p^2 = freq of homozygous dominant
-2pg = freq of heterozygote
-q^2 = freq of homozygous recessive
-p^2 + 2pq = freq of dominant phenotype
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36
Q

Internal urethral sphincter

A

Composed of smooth muscle

  • Contracted in normal state
  • Under involuntary control
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37
Q

How does mitosis occur in germ cells

A

Mitosis only occurs in somatic cells

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38
Q

Senescense

A

Biological aging

-Occurs at cellular and organismal levels

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39
Q

Plasmids

A

Carry DNA not necessary for survival of prokaryotic cell but can help with antibiotic resistance
-Could carry virulence factors that increase pathogenecity

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40
Q

Dermis def

A

Contains Papillary layer and reticular layer of skin
Papillary: Composed of loose connective tissue
Reticular layer: Below papillay and much denser

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41
Q

Cortisol function

A

Raise blood gluc by inc gluconeogenesis and dec protein synthesis
-Dec inflammation and immunologic response

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42
Q

What are the female gonads

A

Ovaries: produce estrogen and progesterone

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43
Q

Calcitonin produced by?

A

Follicular cells produce parafollicular cells in thyroid

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44
Q

What energy source do the use sperm use?

A

fructose

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45
Q

Where are the ovaries located?

A

Thousands of follicles located in pelvic cavity

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46
Q

How does growth hormone perform its function?

A

Prevents glucose uptake in some tissues and stimulates fatty acid breakdown

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47
Q

Speciation def

A

Formation of a new species via evolution

-Could occur based on isolation of two populations

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48
Q

Amnion

A

Surrounds allantois

-Thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid

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49
Q

Chorionic villi

A

penetrate endometrium and support maternal-fetal gas exchange

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50
Q

Neurulation

A

Development of nervous system

  • Rod of mesodermal cells called notochord forms along axis of organism
  • Neural folds grow towards each other and form neural tube = CNA
  • Neural crest cells at tip of folds migrate outwards to form PNS and specific cell types
  • Ectodermal cells migrate to neural tube to cover nervous system
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51
Q

Stratum granulosum def

A

Keratinoctytes die here and lose their nuclei

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52
Q

How long is the effects of steroid hormones?

A

Slower but longer-lived effects than peptide hormones

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53
Q

Asters

A

Anchor centrioles to cell membrane

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54
Q

Ascending loop of henle permeability

A

Only permeable to salts

-Impermeable to water

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55
Q

Function of amniotic fluid

A

Shock absorber for maternal motion

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56
Q

What is gastrulation?

A

Generation of three distinct cell layers

-Forms primary germ cell layers

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57
Q

Gram negative cell wall

A

Thin layer with peptidoglycan

  • Cell walls separated from membrane by periplasmic space
  • Outer membrane has phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides
  • Stain pink
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58
Q

Where are parathyroid hormones located?

A

On top of posterior surface of thyroid

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59
Q

Islates of langerhan function

A

Small clusters of hormone producing cells grouped together

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60
Q

Seminal vesicles

A

Contribute fructose to nourish sperm

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61
Q

What are the three types of hormones released by pancreas

A

Alpha, beta and delta cellls

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62
Q

When is erythropoietin protein secreted

A

In response to low O2 levels in blood

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63
Q

Angiotensin aldosterone system steps

A
  1. Dec BP-> juxtaglomerular cells in kidney secrete renin
  2. Renin cleaves inactive angiotensinogen into active angiotensin I
  3. Angiotensin I converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme
  4. Angiotension II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
  5. Once BP restored, Renin no longer released
    - Negative feedback
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64
Q

What are starling forces

A

Govern movement of fluid into Bowman’s space

-Account for H-static and oncotic pressure differentials between blood and Bowman’s space

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65
Q

Indeterminate vs determinate cleavage

A

Determinate: cells are already determined
-COmmitted to differentiations into a certain cell type
Indeterminate: Cells can still develop into complete organisms

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66
Q

Parallel evolution

A

When related species evolve in a similar way for a long period of time

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67
Q

How do X-linked diseases work?

A

If recessive, female needs allele on both X chromosomes

  • If only have allele on one X chromosome -> carrier
  • For males, only have one X chromosome so if they carrier the allele, have disease
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68
Q

Genetic drift def

A

Changes in gene pool due to chance

-More pronounced in small populations

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69
Q

How does the hypothalamus regulate pituitary gland?

A

Via tropic hormones

-Paracrine release into portal system

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70
Q

What phenomenon is melatonin related to

A

Circadian rhythms

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71
Q

What stimulates calcitonin secretion?

A

High levels of Ca2+ in blood

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72
Q

Reticular Fibers

A

Made of collagen proteins

  • Arranged in thin networks
  • Net arrangement as a support network
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73
Q

Menstruation steps

A
  • Corpus luteum loses stimulation from LH
  • Prog levels decline
  • Uterine lining sloughed off
  • Lower levels of estro/prog allow GnRH to be released and next cycle to begin
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74
Q

Vaginal birth alternate name

A

Parturition

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75
Q

Osmotic pressure vs oncotic pressure

A

Osmotic: sucking pressure that draws water into vasculature
Oncotic: Osmotic pressure attributable to dissolved proteins specifically

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76
Q

Micturition reflex

A
  • When bladder full, stretch receptors tell nervous system to empty it
  • Parasympathetic neurons fire causing dtrusor muscle to contract
  • Internal sphincter relaxes
  • Individual then has choice to mtaintain tone of external to prevent urination
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77
Q

Complete dominance def

A

When only one dominant and one recessive allele exist for a gene

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78
Q

Regenerative capacity

A

Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

-Stem cells can migrate to appropriate part of body to initiate regrowth

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79
Q

What does GnRH trigger during puberty

A

Triggers anterior pituitary to synthesize and release FSH and LH

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80
Q

Type I Alveolar Cell

A

Simple Squamous Epithelial

-Main site of gas exchange

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81
Q

What hormone affects ACTH release?

A

CRH

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82
Q

What process does zygote undergo during its travel to uterus?

A

Rapid cell division -> cleavage

-Oficially creates embryo

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83
Q

Protein fibers vs Ground substance

A 
Protein fibers: Strengthen and Support tissue
-Secreted by connective tissue cells
—Collagen
—Elastic
—Reticular

Ground substance:

  • Material between cells and fibers
  • Supports and bind cells
  • Stores water
  • fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, calcified
  • Contains Glycosaminoglycans
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84
Q

Chromosomal mutations insertion

A

When a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another

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85
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

Require O2 for metabolism

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86
Q

Totipotent stem cells

A

Can divide into any cell type

-Prior to formation of germ layers

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87
Q

What does fewer sequence repeats of an allele indicate?

A

reduced, low or non penetrance

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88
Q

Constant vs variable expressivity

A

COnstant: All inviduals with same genotype express same phenotype
Variable: Individuals with same genotype can have different phenotypes

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89
Q

Microfilaments

A

Made of actin -> organized into bundles

  • Resist compression/fractre -> protection
  • Role in cytokinesis -> contained in cleavage furrow
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90
Q

Stationary phase of bacterial growth

A

As number of bacteria inc, resources are reduced

-Reproduction slows

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91
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney

A

The nephron

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92
Q

Penetrance def

A

Population metric that measures proportion of individuals carrying a certain allele who actually express the phenotype
-Probability that given a particular genotype, person expresses the phenotype

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93
Q

Type II Alveolar Cell

A

Simple Cuboidal Epithelial
-Secretes Alveolar fluid and surfactant
Alveolar fluid: keeps surface between cell and air moist
Surfactant: Prevents alveolar collapse -> keeps alveoli open

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94
Q

How do peptide hormones signal for cellular change?

A

After bidning to extracellular receptor, induce signaling cascade

  1. 1st messenger is peptide hormone that binds to receptor
  2. Trasmission of 2nd signal/messenger triggered
  3. 2nd messenger affects the intended change
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95
Q

Long term stress hormone vs Short term stress

A 
Cortisol = long term
Catecholamines = short term (epi/norepi)
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96
Q

Functions of excretory system

A

Regulation of blood pressure
Reulgation of blood osmolarity and acid-base balance
Removal of nitrogenous waste

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97
Q

Function of ascending vs descending loops of henle

A

Descending: Maximizes water reabsorption
Ascending: max salt reabsorption

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98
Q

What cortical sex hormones released by adrenal glands

A

Androgens and estrogens

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99
Q

How do T3 and T4 affect change?

A

Make energy production more/less efficient and alter utilization of glucose and fatty acids
-Higher T3 = more cellular respiration

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100
Q

ER

A

SEries of interconneted membranes continuous with nuclear envelope

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101
Q

Genes

A

DNA sequences that code for heritable traits passed from generation to the next
-Organized on chromosomes

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102
Q

G2 Postsynaptic Gap phase

A

Further protein syntehsis and rapid cell growh

  • Microtubules being to reorganize to form a spindle
  • Second checkpoint
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103
Q

Parts of a mature sperm

A

Head: cap with acrosome
Mid piece: filled with mitochondria to generate ATP for swimming through reproductive tract
Flagellum: motility

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104
Q

What mutations occur in species well suited to their habitat

A

No changes ar elikely to occur

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105
Q

What Is Mendel’s 2nd Law and what aspect of meiosis explains it?

A

INheritance of one allele has no effect on likelihood of inheriting alleles for other genes
-Explained by crossing over

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106
Q

Chromosomal mutations Deletion

A

Large segment of DNA lost from chromosome

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107
Q

Full penetrance sequence repeats

A

40 sequence repeats

100% of individuals with allele show phenotype

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108
Q

Where does fertilization occur?

A

Widest part of fallopian tube -> ampulla

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109
Q

Puncuated equilibrium

A

Change in some species occurs in rapid bursts instead of gradually over time

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110
Q

Prolactin function

A

Stimulates mmilk production in mammary glands

-Smooth muscles in breast contract

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111
Q

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

A

First line of defense against microbes -> protection against abrasion of water loss

  • Nonkeratinized: Mouth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, vagina
  • Keratinized: Superficial layer of skin
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112
Q

Tight Junctions vs Adherens Junctions

A

Tight: Form fluid-tight seals between cells

  • Preventing substances from passing through -> no leaky organs
  • Lining of stomach, intestines, bladder

Adherens: Help epithelial surfaces resist separation during movement
-Connect actin cytoskeleton of cells together

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113
Q

Blastula structure

A

Hollow ball of cells in fluid-filled cavity

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114
Q

Bacterial shapes

A

Spherical = cocci
Rod-shaped bacteria = bacilli
Spiral-shaped = spirili

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115
Q

Zona Pellucida

A

Surrounds oocyte and a cellular mix of glycoproteins to protect oocyte and compounds needed for sperm binding

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116
Q

Where do spermatozoa gain mobility

A

Sperm are passed to epididymis where they gain mobility

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117
Q

What substances are always reabsorbed

A

Glucose, vitamins, amino acids

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118
Q

What drugs inhibit ADH release and what are their effects

A

Caffeine and alcohol inhibit ADH release

-Lead to freq urination of dilute urine

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119
Q

Law of Segregation

A

Either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell

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120
Q

Directional selection ef

A

Emergence and dominance of initially extreme phenotype

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121
Q

what hormones does adrenal medulla release

A

Promote sympathetic hormones epi and norepi

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122
Q

Cowper’s/Bulbourethral Gland

A

Produces clear viscous fluid that clears out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal

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123
Q

Areolar Connective tissue

A

Strength, elasticity, support

  • In and around nearly every structure
  • Packing material
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124
Q

Facultative Anaerobes

A

Can toggle between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism based on O2 concentration

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125
Q

Direction of genetic info transfer in conjugation

A

Male donor to recipient female

-Male donor needs plasmids for sex factors

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126
Q

Where are the testis located

A

In the scrotum (external pouch below penis)

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127
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Contain hydrogen peroxide

-Break down of long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation

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128
Q

Types of amino acid derivatives?

A

Epi and norepi

-Catcholamines

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129
Q

Punnet square variables

A

P generation = parent -> gets crossed
F1 generation = their offspring
F2= offpsring of the offspring

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130
Q

When does menstruation occur

A

Only if implantation doesn’t occur

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131
Q

Transitional Epithelium

A

Allows urinary organs to stretch

  • Maintains protective lining without rupturing
  • Urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra
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132
Q

High penetrance sequence repeats

A

Fewer sequence repeats

Most with allele show phenotype

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133
Q

Filtration steps

A
  1. Fluid moves into Bowman’s spaces based on Starling forces
    2, Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus much higher than that in Bowman’s space so fluid moves into nephron
    -This diff in H-static pressure overrides higher osmolarity of blood in Bowman’s space that opposes fluid movement into nephron
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134
Q

Structure of Bacteriophages?

A

Tail sheath: syringe that injects genetic material into bacteria
Tail fibers: help bacteriophage recognize and connect to correct host cell

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135
Q

Contrast R from L Lung

A

R lung:
-Shorter, wider, 3 lobes
L lung:
-longer, narrower, two lobes, cardiac notch

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136
Q

Erythropoietin function

A

Stimulates bone marrow to inc erythrocyte production

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137
Q

What is descending loop of henle mostly permeable to?

A

Primarily permeable to water

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138
Q

Juxtacrine

A

Involve a cell directly stimulating receptors of an adjacent cell

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139
Q

What does respiratory system do if blood pH too high

A

Decreases respiratory rate

-Increased conversion of CO2 and water in forward direction of equation to create more H+ and HCO3-

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140
Q

How does ADH affect kidney function

A

Only in colelcting duct

  • Inc reabsorption of water
  • Greater water retention/more concentrated urine
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141
Q

Yolk sac function

A

Site of early blood cell development

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142
Q

Conjugation

A

Bacterial mating/sexual reproductions

  • Two bacterial cells form conjugation bridge: facilitates transfer of genetic material
  • Transfer is unidirectional
  • Bridge made from sex pili from donor male
  • Copy of genome attempted to transfer but usually not completed
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143
Q

Where do peptide hormones bind?

A

They are charged so they cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer
-Bind to extracellular ligand

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144
Q

How is viral progeny released?

A

Released when cell death initiated by virus

  • Spills progeny
  • Could also result from host cell lysing by large numbers of virion
  • Can also be by fusing with cell membrane -> productive cycle
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145
Q

What system controls aldosterone secretion

A

angiotensin aldosterone system

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146
Q

Episomes

A

Plasmids capable of integrating into genome of bacteria

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147
Q

Glucocorticoids function

A

Steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels

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148
Q

Negative sense single stranded virus RNA

A

Strand is template for synthesis of complementary strand

  • Complementary strand used as template for protein synthesis
  • Must have RNA replicase to ensure complementary strand synthesized
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149
Q

Hypothyroidism effects

A

Lethargy, dec body temp, slowed respiration, low HR

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150
Q

Presygotic mechanisms of speciation

A 
Pre: prevent formation of zygote completely
-Temporal
behavioral
reproductive
genetic isolation
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151
Q

G0 stage

A

Cell not carrying out functions in preparation for division

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152
Q

Anaerobes

A

Do not require oxygen by using fermentation for metabolism

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153
Q

Ovulation

A

Eventually estrogen reaches concentration threshold that results in positive feedback of GnRH, LH, FSH to spike

  • Surge in LH induces ovulation
  • Release of ovum from ovary into peritoneal cavity
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154
Q

Hypodermis def

A

subcutaneous layer below dermis

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155
Q

Induction

A

Process of groups of cells to influence nearby cells

-Ensures different cell types work together within an organ

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156
Q

3rd trimester

A

Continued rapid growth
-more brain development
antibodes transported from mother to fetus
-Growth rate slows and fetus is less active because less room

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157
Q

Retrovirus mechanism

A

DNA integrates into host cell genome and is replicated/transcribed

  • Cell is infected indefinitely
  • Only way to remove infection is to kill cell
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158
Q

Pluripotent stem cells

A

Can differentiate into any cell type not in placental structures
-After formation of the three germ layers

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159
Q

How do viruses reproduce?

A

Cannot reproduce independently

  • Obligate intracellular parasites
  • Must express and replicate genetic info within host cell
  • Replicate and produce virions to infect additional cells
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160
Q

Role of blastocyst in fertilization

A
  • Secretes hCG -> analog of LH
  • Maintains corpus luteum
  • Critical during 1st trimester
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161
Q

What results from fertilization

A

Zygote develops into blastocyst and implants into uterine lining

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162
Q

Pulmonary Respiration is -____

A

gas exchange in alveoli

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163
Q

Translocation Chromosomal mutations

A

Segment of DNA from one chromosome swapped with a segment of DNA from another

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164
Q

Autocrine signals

A

signals act on same cell that secreted the signal

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165
Q

What is the first checkpoint of the cell cycle and during what phase is it locarted?

A

End of G1 phase

-Checks if cell is ready to commit to cell division and replicate DNA

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166
Q

Trachea Composition

A

Contains hyaline cartilage
Has pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells
Also contains goblet cells

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167
Q

Vas deferens

A

Layer of muscle that regulates temp of sperm development

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168
Q

How does the pineal gland know to release melatonin

A

Receives projections from retina by responding to intensity of sunlight

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169
Q

Prophase

A

Condensation of chromatin into chromosomes

  • Centrioles pair and separate to opposite side of cell
  • Centrioles begin to form spindle finbers
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170
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

Nonciliated: More secretion and absorption than cuboidal
-GI tract -> stomach, gallbladder, ducts of glands

Ciliated: Moves particles away
-Bronchioles of respiratory tract, uterine fallopian tube

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171
Q

Microtubules

A

Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins

-Primary pathway for motor proteins like kinesin and dynein to carry vesicles

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172
Q

Three layers of wall of heart

A

Epicardium, myocardium and endocardium

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173
Q

Gene pool def

A

All alleles that exist within a species

-New genes added via mutations or gene leakage

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174
Q

What are cycline

A

Bind to cyclin-dependent kinases CDKs that can phosphorylate transcription factors’
-Promote transcription of genes required for the next cell cycle

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175
Q

Anaphase

A

Centromeres split so each chromitd has own centromere

-Sister chromatids separate -> pulled to opposite sides

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176
Q

Stabilizing selection def

A

Keeps phenotypes within specific range by selecting against extremes
Ex: gestational weight can’t be too much or too little

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177
Q

Stem cells

A

Cells not yet differentiated or that give rise to other cells that will differentiat

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178
Q

Tissue

A

Group of cells with common function that carry out specialized activities

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179
Q

List the 5 strata of the epidermis in order from deepest to shallowest

A 
Stratum basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosa
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum
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180
Q

Who discovered transformation in bacteria

A

Griffith experiement -> frederick griffith

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181
Q

Bowman’s capsule definition

A

Encases glomerulus leads to PCT

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182
Q

Aldosterone kidney pathway

A
  1. Dec BP -> renin released from juxtaglomerular cellls
  2. Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I
  3. Angiotensin-convertin enzyme metabolizes angiotensin I to angiotensin II
  4. Angiotensin II promotes release of aldosterone form adrenal cortex
  5. Aldosterone inc Na+ reabsorption in DCT and water reabsorption in collecting duct
  6. Aldosterone also inc K+ and H+ excretion
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183
Q

Bone Tissue

A

Support, protection, storage

  • Houses blood forming tissues
  • Exc. Matrix: calcified
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184
Q

Structural components of flagella

A

Filament, basal body, hook

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185
Q

What mutations are larger scale than nucleotide mutations

A

Chromosomal mutations

-Affects large segments of DNA

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186
Q

Renal hilum

A

Deep slit in center of medial surface of kidney

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187
Q

Treatment for type I diabetes

A

Regular injections of insulin required

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188
Q

Functions of TSH

A
  1. Set basal metabolic rate -> T3 and T4

2. Promote calcium homeostatsis -> Clacitonin release

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189
Q

Neo darwinism inclusive fitness

A

Inclusive fitness: measure of organism’s success in populations based on number of offspring, success in supporting those offspring, ability of offspring to support others

  • Darwin did not look at behaviors of population in relation to protecting offspring
  • this includes parents nature of endangering self to protect offspring
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190
Q

What chromosomes determine 23rd Choromosomes

A

Biological sex

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191
Q

What happens during fertilization to secondary oocyte?

A

Undergoes meiosis II and splits into mature ovum and another polar body
-Consists of large quantities of cytoplasm and organelles

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192
Q

Inbreeding depression def

A

Loss of genetic variation may cause reduced fitness of a population

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193
Q

Endoderm

A

Innermost layer

-Epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts, pancreas, thyroid, bladder parts of liver

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194
Q

How long are cells usually in interphase?

A

For about 90% of the time

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195
Q

Basal body (flagella)

A

Anchors flagellum to cytoplasmic membrane and is motor for flagellum

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196
Q

What happens when blood osmolarity is high

A

Water reabsorption inc and solute excretion inc

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197
Q

Errector pilli function

A

Contract and cause hairs on skin to stand up

-Traps layer of heated air near skin

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198
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation is _____

A

Breathing

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199
Q

Codominance def

A

When more than one dominant allele exists for a given gene

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200
Q

Levels of human chorionic gonadotropin hCG

A
  • Levels decline during 2nd trimester bc placenta sufficient in size to secrete prog/estro by itself
  • Inhibited by high levels of prog/estro
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201
Q

Cell Junctions:

A

Hold individual cells together

-Contact point between plasma membrane of neighboring cells

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202
Q

Where do renal arteries, renal veins and ureters enter and exit kidney?

A

Through the renal hilum

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203
Q

What type of muscles line the bladder and what division of nervous system controls them

A

Detrusor muscles and are controlled by parasympathetic activity

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204
Q

Postzygotic mechanisms of speciation

A

ALlow for gamete fusion but lead to nonviable/sterile offspring
Hybrid invariability
Hybrid sterility
Hybrid breakdown

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205
Q

Anaphase I

A

Homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite pulls via disjunction
-Explain’s Mendel’s 1st law that each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin

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206
Q

Example of tropic hormone pathway

A

GnRH and LH don’t directly induce change

-Make gonads release testosterone in males

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207
Q

What dynamics do expressivity and penetrance reflect?

A

Expressivity reflects genetics at an individual level

Penetrance: population level

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208
Q

What is the countercurrent miltiplier system in kidneys

A

Flow of filtrate in loop of Henle oposite direction from flow of blood in vasa recta
-Filtrate constantly exposed to hypertonic blood -> maximal reabsorption of water

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209
Q

Distal convoluted tubule function

A

Responds to aldosterone which promotes Na+ reabsorption

-Waste product secretion like PCT

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210
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Neurons + Neuroglia: Contact nerve impulses

  • Brain, spinal cord, nerves
  • Neurons & muscle cells are excitable
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211
Q

Function of hormones

A

Bind to receptors of tissues and induce changes in gene expression or cellular functioning

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212
Q

What type of blood carried in pulmonary venules/arterioles?

A

Pulmonary arteriole: deoxygenated blood -> blood coming from heart to lungs
Pulmonary Venule: Oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart

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213
Q

Effect of parathyroid hormones

A

Dec excretion of Ca by kidneys, inc abosrption by Ca in gut
-Also promotes phosphorus homeostatsis by inc resorption of phosphate of bone and reduced reabsorption of phosphate in kidneys

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214
Q

Stratum spinosum def

A

Conencted to each of the other strata

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215
Q

Determination stage of cell specialization

A

Cell irreversibly commits cell to a specific lineage

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216
Q

Convergent evolution def

A

Independent developkent of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a common ancestor
-Analagous structures
Ex: fish and dolphins resemble each other but from different classes of vertebrates

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217
Q

What hormones increase reabsorption of water

A

aldosterons and ADH

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218
Q

When does transduction occur in the lysogenic cycle?

A

If extracts portions of bacterial DNA when leaving

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219
Q

What do cells of Leydig do

A

Secretes testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens)

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220
Q

What tissue is hypodermis composed of

A

Connective tissue connnects it to skin and rest of body

-Composed of fat and fibrous tissue

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5
Perfectly
221
Q

Ex of selective transcription

A

Pancreatic islet cell has genes on to produce hormones but other cells would have these genes turned off

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222
Q

Cortex vs medulla of kidney location

A

Cortex: outermost
Medulla: within cortex

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223
Q

Telophae I

A

Nuc membrane reforms, each chromosome still has two sister chromatids at centromere
-Cells are now haploid

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224
Q

Species def

A

Largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring

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225
Q

Genetic leakage def

A

Flow of genes between species

  • When individuals of different but closely related species mate to produce hybrid offspring
  • WHen these hybrid offspring can reproduce -> gene flow
226
Q

Transposons def

A

Can insert and remove themselve from genome

-Can disrupt a gene if inserts into its sequence

227
Q

Mesoderm

A

Musculoskeletal, circulatory, most of excretory, gonads,

-Moveoderm

228
Q

Natural selection theory and creator

A

Certain characteristics/traits possed by individuals within a species may help them have greater reproductive success and pass traits off to offspring
-Charles darwin

229
Q

Where are androgens primarily released from

A

Mostly from testes, some released by adrenal glands

230
Q

Chemotaxis

A

Ability of cell to detect stimuli and move toward/away it

231
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

Excess of thyroid hormone

-Opposite effects of hypothyroidism

232
Q

What are trophoblast cells

A

Surround and give rise to chorion and placenta

-Protudes into blastocoel annd gives rise to organism itself

233
Q

Gap Junctions

A

Fluid-filled tunnels -> connexons between cells

  • Allows cells to rapidly communicate with each other
  • Enable impulses to travel quickly from cell to cell

Found in:
Cardiac muscle tissue
Smooth of intestines/uterus
Nervous tissue

234
Q

Where are steroid hormones produced

A

Gonads and adrenal cortex

235
Q

Teratogens

A

Substances that interfere with development

-Can cause defects or death of embryo

236
Q

Dense regular vs irregular connective

A

Regular: Withstands pulling/tension along axis
Irregular: Tensile pulling strength in many directions

237
Q

Types of hormones

A

Peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives

238
Q

Locus def

A

Location on a specific chromosome

239
Q

Allele freq def

A

How often an allele appears in a population

-Evolution results from changes in gene freq of reproducing poulations over time

240
Q

What is the epidermis divided into

A

Strata

241
Q

Growth hormone function

A

Promotes growth of bone and muscle

242
Q

What type of hormones are epi and norepi

A

Amino-acid derivative hormones

-Bigger group: catecholamines

243
Q

HOw long is the duration of effect of peptide hormones?

A

Usually rapid effect but short-lived

-Need constant stimulation for effect to last

244
Q

Chorion

A

Extraembryonic membrane that develops into placenta

245
Q

Responder cell

A

Cell that is induced into developing into a type of cell

246
Q

Aerotolerant Anaerobes

A

Unable to have O2 for metabolism

-Not harmed by presence of O2 in enviornment

247
Q

If blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high what does urine composed of

A

Urine would be highly concentrated with low water volume

248
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Materials from ER transferred to golgi via vesicles

  • MOdified with addition of carbs, phosphates sulfates, etc
  • Repackages modified products into vesivles
  • Vesicles released via exocytosis
249
Q

Glucagon function

A

Inc gluc production by triggering glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and degradation of protein/fat

250
Q

What gland releases melatonin

A

Pineal gland

251
Q

Tenets of Mendel’s 1st law of segregation

A
  1. Genes exist in alrenative forms -> alleles
  2. An organism has two alleles for each gene -> one inherited from each parent
  3. Two alleles segregate during meiosis
    - Gametes carry only one allele for any inherited trait
  4. If two alleles are different, only one is fully expressed while the other is silent
    - Recessive allele is silent
    - This segregation occurs in anaphase I of meiosis
252
Q

What happens if person decides not to urinate with Micturition reflex?

A

After a few moments of discomfort, the reflex dissipates

-Reflex begins again shortly thereafter

253
Q

Alveolar Macrophages

A

Phagocytes -> Remove debris

254
Q

Adrenal glands components

A

medulla and cortex

255
Q

What organ converts ammonia to urea and why does this conversion happen

A

The liver converts

-Necessary because ammonia is a basic compiund that could mess up pH of blood and cells and urea is a neutral compound

256
Q

What type of change does steroid hormones do?

A

Binding leads to conformational change of receptor which can bind to DNA

257
Q

What does respiratory sytem do if blood pH is too low

A

Inc respiratory rate to blow off more CO2
Also converts H+ and HCO3- to water and CO2 to inc pH
-Bicarbonate goes in reverse direction

258
Q

What are the four stages of regular cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, M

259
Q

Anterior pituitary mnemonic

A 
FLAT PEG
F: follicle stimulating hormone
L: Leuteinizing hormone
A: Adrenocorticoptropic hormone
T: Thyroid-stimulating hormone
P: Prolactin
E: Endorphins
G: Growth hormone
260
Q

What do the equations of hardy weinberg equil tell us

A

1st: freq of alleles in a population
2nd: genotype and phenotype freqs in a population

261
Q

Competent cell

A

When responder is able to respond to an inducing signal

262
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Formation of haploid sperm via meiosis

263
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

When heterozygote expresses phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes

264
Q

Stratum basale def

A

Stem cells that proliferate into keratinocytes

-Keratonicoytes produce keratin

265
Q

When are amino acids, gluc vitamins excreted

A

In secretion stage

-Allos secretion of molecules to large for glomerular pores

266
Q

Lytic cycle

A

Bacteriophage maximizes use of cell’s machinery with little regard for host cell survival

  • Once cell swelling with new virion, cell lyses and other bacteria can be infected
  • Viruses in this phase -> virulent
267
Q

Where does all connective tissue originate from?

A

Originates from mesenchymal cells in embryo

268
Q

Oxytocin affects

A
  • Stimulates uterine contraction

- May be involved in bonding behavior

269
Q

Morula

A

Sold mass of cells of embryo

-Undergoes blastulation to form a blastula

270
Q

What hormome affects prolactin release?

A

PIF

271
Q

Mutation def

A

Changes in DNA sequence that result in mutant allele

272
Q

Outbreeding def

A

Introduction of unrelated individuals into breeding group

-Could result in inc variation and inc fitness of population

273
Q

Capsid

A

Protein coat surrounded by envelope of phospholipids and virus-specific proteins

274
Q

Hemizygous def

A

ONly one allele present for a gene

Ex: On X chromosome only in males

275
Q

Differences. between cellular and organismal level senescense

A

Cellular: results in failure to divide

Organismal Level: represents changes in body’s ability to respond to changing environment

276
Q

Lobule Breakdown

A

Single compartment respiratory unit

Respiratory bronchioles -> Alveolar ducts -> Alveolar sacs -> Alveoli

277
Q

What type of cells are autosomal cells?

A

Diploid

278
Q

Cellular Respiration is ____

A

gas exchange in the tissues

279
Q

Multipotent cells

A

More specialized

-Can differentiate into multiple types of cells within a certain group

280
Q

External urethral sphincter

A

Composed of skeletal muscle -> voluntary control

281
Q

What is a test cross

A

When one of the parents has an unknown genotype, cross it with a homozygous recessive genotype

282
Q

Steps of sperm binding with secondary oocyte?

A

Binds and releases acrosomal enzymes to enable it to penetrate corona radiata and zona pellucida

  • Forms tube-like acrosomal apparatus to penetrate cell membrane
  • Pronucles freely enters oocyte
283
Q

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A
  • Sites of filtration and diffusion
  • Lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, endothelium
  • Epithelial layer of serous membranes
284
Q

What is recombination frequency (represented by theta)

A

Likelihood of two alleles separated from each other during crossing over
-Roughly proportional to distance between genes on chromosome

285
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Right after telophase

-Separation of cytoplasm and organelles

286
Q

What form is DNA stored in in viruses?

A

Could be circular, linear, single or double stranded

287
Q

Effects of menopause

A

Menstruation stops

  • Estro and Prog levels drop
  • Endometrium atrophies
288
Q

Endoprhins function

A

Dec percetion of pain

289
Q

Collagen

A

Made of collagen protein

  • Often in large bundles
  • Very strong, resist pull or stretch
  • Act like glue but also flexible
290
Q

When is GnRH released?

A

Once puberty has started

291
Q

How many copies of each chromosome does each person have

A

Two -> homologous

292
Q

What is the product of mitosis

A

Two identical daughter cells

293
Q

Role of estrogens

A
  • Secreted in response to FSH and result in development/maintenance of female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics
  • Stimulates development of reproductive tract
294
Q

How do steroid hormones interact with blood and the membrane

A

Derived from a nonpolar molecule so can easily cross membrane
-Cannot freely travel through bloodstream so must be carried via carrier proteins

295
Q

Log/exponential phase of bacterial growth

A

Bacteria adapts and rate of division inc

-Exponential inc in number of bacteria

296
Q

WHat genetic info does the Y chromosome carry?

A

-Has SRY gene which codes for transcription factor of testis differentiation and formation of male gonads

297
Q

How does CV system regulate BP

A

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation to maintain blood pressure

=Constriction -> lower BP in glomeruli -> inc BP in general

298
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Provides structure to cell and helps it maintain shape

  • COnduit for transport of materials around cell
  • Broken up into microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments
299
Q

Function of acrosome

A

Penetration of ovum

300
Q

Epiglottis Function

A

Prevents swallowed food from entering the trachea

301
Q

Diploid vs Haploid

A

Diploid: Two copies of each chromosome
Haploid: One copy of each chromosome

302
Q

Prolactin inhibited by?

A

Release of DA from hypothalamus dec secretion

303
Q

Hypoglycemia definition

A

Low blood gluc concentration

304
Q

Stratum corneum def

A

Several dozen layers of dead, flattened keratinocytes

  • Prevents loss of fluids/salts
  • Protects against Microbial production
305
Q

ADH function

A

Reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys

  • Inc. plasma osmolarity
  • Inc. conc of solute in blood
  • Inc permeability of collecting duct
306
Q

Meiosis II

A

Similar to mitosis in that siter chromatids are separate

-Different because end result is two haploid daughter cells

307
Q

Elastic Fibers

A

Made of elastin protein
-Can be stretched up to 150%
Return to normal shape after stretch
-Give structures elasticity

308
Q

Layer after the cell wall

A

Plasma membrane

309
Q

Molecular clock model def

A

Degree of genomic similarity with amount of time some two species are split from a common ancestor
-More time = less similarity

310
Q

Where are sperm stored prior to ejaculation?

A

In the epididymis

311
Q

Selective transcription

A

Allows for formation of distinctive cell types

-Only genes needed for particular cell types are transcribed

312
Q

Portal system steps

A
  1. Artery branches into medulla and enters cortex as afferent arterioles
  2. Tufts of glomeruli connect to afferent arterioles
  3. Blood passess through glomerulus and efferent arterioles to form 2nd capillary bed
  4. Leads into loop of henle
  5. Travels back into body
313
Q

Collecting duct function

A

Responsive to both aldosterone and ADH for permeability

  • If permeability inc, water is reabsorped and urine is concentrated
  • If impermeable, low concentrated urine
314
Q

Melanocytes functino

A

In stratum basale, produce melanin

-Melanin transferred from melanocytes to kertainocytes

315
Q

Somatostatin

A

Inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion

-Stimulated by high blood gluc and amino acid concentration

316
Q

Desmosomes vs Hemidesmosomes

A

Desmo: Link cytoskeletons of adjacent cells together

  • Stability of cells and tissue
  • Prevent then from separating under tension

Hemi: Connect cells to extra cellular material
-Anchor cells to basement membrane

317
Q

Genetic map def

A

Can be created representing relative distance between genes on a chromosome
-One map unit equals 1% chance of recombination between two genes

318
Q

Thymus releases what hormone

A

Thymosin: proper T-cell development and differentiation

319
Q

How can peptide hormone effects be amplified?

A

Each step of the peptide hormone signaling pathway can be amplified by binding of hormone to multiple receptors
-Each receptor could also activate multiple enzymes and create more 2ndary messengers

320
Q

Proximal COnvoluted Tubule function

A

Amino acids, gluc, water-soluble vitamins and most salts reabsorbed with water
-Secretion of waste products: K+, H+, urea

321
Q

Recombination frequencies of tightly vs weakly linked genes

A

Tightly: Theta close to 0%
Loosely: theta close to 50%

322
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

A

Secretion and Absorption

-Kidney Tubules, ducts of glands like in thyroid

323
Q

Phases of bacterial growth

A

Lag, log/exponential, stationary, death phases

324
Q

Fitness def

A

Individual’s level of reproductive success

325
Q

How are peptide hormones directed to their intended location?

A

Smaller units are transported to the Golgi body and modified/activated and directed to location of effect
-Released by exocytosis into bloodstream

326
Q

Where do tropic hormones originate?

A

In brain/anterior pituitary

327
Q

Mendel’s Second law of segregation

A

Law of independent assortment

Inheritance of one gene does not affect inheritance of another gene

328
Q

Cell wall + cell membrane = ?

A

Envelope

329
Q

Reticular connective Tissue

A

Stroma of organs

  • Filters blood cells in spleen & microbes in lymph nodes
  • Found in stroma of liver, spleen, lymph nodes
330
Q

How do kidneys contribute to the bicarbonate buffer system

A

Can selecitvely inc or dec secretion of H+ ions or bicarbonate

  • If blood pH too low, kidneys excrete more H+ ions and increase reasborption of bicarbonate -> higher pH
  • If blood pH too high vice cersa
331
Q

Reabsoprtion kidney definition

A

Some compounds filtered or secreted may be taken up for use

332
Q

What connects the embryo to the placenta?

A

Umbilical cord

333
Q

INsulin function

A

Antagonistic to glucagon and secreted when blood gluc levels are high

  • INduces muscle and liver cells to take up gluc and store as glyocgen for later use
  • Stimulates fat and protein synthesis
334
Q

FSH and LH roles in males

A

FSH: stimulates ser toil cells and triggers sperm maturation
LH: induces interstitial cells to produce testosterone

335
Q

Fat ufunction of thermoregulation

A

Adipose tissue -> white fat -> insulation

Brown fat: produces a lot of heat energy in in fants

336
Q

WHat structures are found on microtubules?

A

Cilia: project from cell and involved in movement of material along its surface
Flagella: involved in movement of cell itself
-Centrioles: create spindle fibers during mitosis

337
Q

Adipose Connective Tissue

A

Energy reserve, supports and protects

  • Reduces heat loss
  • Located anywhere where areolar tissue is
  • Subcutaneous, heart, kidneys, yellow bone marrow
338
Q

What does nephron secrete into tubules?

A

Salts, acids, bases and urea

-Quantity of substances secreted related to bod’s needs at the time

339
Q

What stimulates Parathyroid hormone secretion

A

Low blood Ca levels

340
Q

Mutagens def

A

Substances that cause mutations

341
Q

Peptide hormones are made of?

A

Made of amino acids and derived from larger precursors of polypeptides that have been cleaved posttranslationally

342
Q

Renal pelvis location

A

Spans almost entire witdth of renal hilum

343
Q

What hormone affects GHRH?

A

GH

344
Q

What is the problem with Mendel’s second law of segregation

A

linked genes

345
Q

G1: Presynaptic Gap phase

A

Cells create organelles for energy/protein production and increase in size

  • Replicate mitochondria, ribosomes, ER
  • First restriction point
346
Q

Centrosome definition

A

Contains chromatids

347
Q

Criteria for gene pool stability/Hardy-weinberg equilibrium

A
  1. Population very large -> no genetic drift
  2. No mutations occur that affect gene pool
  3. Mating between individuals in population is random
  4. No migration of individuals in or out of population
  5. Genes in population are equally successful at being produced
348
Q

Alternative name for pituitary gland?

A

Hypophysis

349
Q

How does the skin perform thermoregulation

A

Sweating, arrector pilli, arterioles near the skin constriction, shiver, fat insulation

350
Q

Menopause

A

Ovaries become less esnstive to FSH and LH as women age

  • Ovaries begin to atrophy
  • Usually between 45-55
351
Q

First trimester of pregnancy

A 
Major organs start to develop
Heart begins to beat
Eyes, gonads, limbs, and liver start to form
5 weeks: embryo = 10 mm in length
8 weeks: embryo becomes fetus
352
Q

Retroviruses enzymes for translation/replication

A

Carry reverse transcriptase that synthesizes DNA from single-stranded RNA

353
Q

Divergent evolution

A

Independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages
-They share a common ancestor
-Homologous structures
Ex: seals and cats both in carnivora order but very diff

354
Q

Filament (flagella)

A

Hollow helical structure made of flagellin

355
Q

Endocrine signals

A

Involve secreted hormones that travel through the bloodstream to a directed tissue

356
Q

Which types of cells commonly use transformation

A

Gram-negative rods

357
Q

Lag phase of bacterial growth

A

Bacteria first adapts to new local environment

-Growth but not rapid

358
Q

Hematopoesis

A

Formation of blood cells

  • Starts in red bone marrow
  • ALl cells derived from heamtopoietic stem cell
359
Q

What do parathyroids produce?

A

Paratyroid hormones

360
Q

amino acid derivative hormones structure

A

Composed of less amount of aa’s than other two

361
Q

What term is given to mutations with a negative selective advantage

A

Deleterious mutations

362
Q

Where does spermatogenesis occur

A

In the seminiferous tubules

363
Q

Disruptive selection def

A

Two extreme phenotypes selected over the norm

  • No animals have intermediate phenotype
  • Facilitated by polymorphisms -> difference between members of the same population
364
Q

Direct hormones definition

A

Secreted and act direcly on target tissue

365
Q

Viroids

A

Small pathogens with very short circular single-stranded RNA that infect plants

  • Can bind to large numbers of RNA sequences and silence genes in plant genome
  • Prevents synthesis of necessary proteins
366
Q

Chromosomal mutations inversion

A

When a segment of DNA is reversed within a chromosome

367
Q

Shivering function

A

Contractions of skeletal muscles to produce heat

368
Q

Aldosterone function

A

Inc BP by inc Na reabsorption in DCT and collecting duct

-Also dec reabsoprtion of K and H+ ions in DCT and collecting duct

369
Q

Kinetochores

A

Attachment points for fibers of the spindle apparatus

370
Q

Filtration kidney definition

A

Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman’s capsule

371
Q

What is the bicrabonate buffer system equation

A

CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-

372
Q

Bacteriophages definition

A

Viruses that infect bacteria

373
Q

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

A

-Secretes mucus that trap particles
-Cilia sweeps away particles
-Airways of upper respiratory tract
—Trachea

374
Q

What is a spermatogonium?

A

A male diploid stem cell

375
Q

Prions

A

Infectious proteins: non living things that cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins

  • Usually via conversion from alpha-helice to beta-pleated sheet
  • Reduces solubility and ability of cell to degrade it
  • Cell aggregates form and interferes with cell function
376
Q

Stratum lucidum

A

Only found in thick hairless skin

377
Q

What type of feedback affects oxytocin level?

A

Positive feedback loop:

  • Release promotes uterine contraction and oxytocin release
  • More oxytocin release leads to stronger contractions
378
Q

Steroid Hormones are derived from what compounds?

A

Derived from cholesterol

379
Q

Virus composition

A

Genetic material, protein coat, and envelope with lipids

380
Q

What are symptoms of diabetes in general

A

Hyperglycemia

  • Overwhelms nephron ability to reabsorb gluc and leads to gluc in urine
  • Leads to excess excretion of water and dramatic inc in urine volume
381
Q

Ectoderm

A

Outermost layer

=Integument, nervous system, adrenal medulla, inner ear, eye lens

382
Q

Where does zygote travel after fertilization?

A

Has to travel to uterus for implantation

383
Q

Tropic hormones

A

Require an intermediary to act

384
Q

Brown vs white adipose

A

Brown: More blood vessels, more mitochondria, heat production, infants

White: More fat storage, adults

385
Q

Vulva

A

General term for external female anatomy

386
Q

Langerhans cells function

A

Special macrophages in stratum spinosum

-Presents antigens ti T-cells and activates immune system

387
Q

How permeable is skin to H20

A

Matinatins blood osmolarity with this impermeability to H20

-Prevents water loss of H20 entering through skin

388
Q

Steps of Mendel’s Second law of segregation

A
  • Small segments of DNA swapped between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I -> novel combos of alleles now present -> recombination
  • Inc genetic diversity of gametes and offspring
389
Q

Passage of urine through excretory system

A

Nephron -> renal pelvis -> urter -> bladder -> urethra

390
Q

Where are norepi and epi secreted

A

Directly into bloodstream

391
Q

Positive sense single stranded virus RNA

A

Genome directly translated to functional proteins by ribosomes of host cell
-Similar to mRNA

392
Q

Sweating function

A

Cooling mechanism and controlled by autonomic NS

  • Postganglionic sympathetic secretion of water from sweat glands
  • Heat absorbed from body and evaporates
  • Large quantitiy of blood borught to surface of blood which leads to evaporation of sweat
393
Q

Where are the receptors for steroid hormones typically found?

A

Typically intracellular or intracnuclear

394
Q

Telophase

A

Spindle apparatus disappears, nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes, chromosomes uncoil

395
Q

Hypothyroidism definition

A

Deficiency of iodine or inflammation of thyroid

396
Q

Skeletal vs Cardiac vs Smooth Muscle tissue

A

Skeletal: Motion, posture, heat production

Cardiac: pumps blood to all parts of body

Smooth: Motion
-Iris,blood vessels, stomach, airways, intestines, bladder

397
Q

Follicular phase

A
  • GnRH secretion inc. response to dec. concentration of estro/prog
  • GnRH causes secretion inc of FSH/LSH -> develop several ovarian follicles
  • Follicles produce estrogen that cause FSH, LH, GnRH levels to fall off
  • Estrogen stimulates regrowth of endometrial lining
398
Q

Two components of the testis

A

seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells of Leydig

399
Q

What do determination and differentiation depend on?

A

Depends on cellular location and identity of surrounding cells

400
Q

What happens if the celll does not meet the criteria of a checkpoint during the cell cycle?

A

Cell goes into arrest until DNA is repaired

401
Q

Type I diabetes

A

Low or no insulin production

-Result of autoimmune destruction of beta islet cells

402
Q

Type II diabetes

A

Receptor-level resistance to effects of insulin

-Partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors

403
Q

What is the product of spermatogenesis

A

Four functional sperm for each spermatogonium

404
Q

What hormones does Posterior pituitary release?

A

Oxytocin and ADH

405
Q

Carrier definition

A

When someone carries a diseased allele but doesn’t exhibit disease

406
Q

When is glucagon released

A

During times of fasting or when blood glucose is low

407
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Cell-cell adhesion of cytoskeletons

-Anchor organelles

408
Q

Secretion definition kidney

A

Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate in PCT and descending loop of henle

409
Q

Steps of parturition

A
  1. cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures
  2. Strong uterine contractions result in birth of fetus
  3. Placenta and umbilical cord expelled (afterbirth)
410
Q

Filtrate composition

A

Similar to blood but no cells or proteins

-Isotonic to blood

411
Q

Viruses binding to receptors mechanism

A

Viruses must bind to specific receptors

  • Once binding, virus and cell can do additional interactions
  • Enveloped viruses fuse with plasma membrane
  • Virion enters host cell
  • Depending on virus, different, portions of virion inserted into host cells
412
Q

Function of endocrine system

A

Has organs/glands that secrete hormones directly intobloodstream to distant tissues

413
Q

What do excess and deficicient amounts of GH lead to

A

Excess: gigantism
Deficit: Dwarfism

414
Q

What are calluses made out of

A

Excessive keratin due to repeated strain of an area of skin

415
Q

Estrogen role in adults

A

Leads to thickening of endometrium each month in preparation of implantation of zygote

  • Secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH
  • Supplied by placenta in 1st trimester of pregnancy
416
Q

What are follicles (female gonads)

A

Multilayered sacs containing, nourishing, protecting immature eggs/ova

417
Q

Incomplete regeneration

A

newly formed tissue is not identical in structure/function to tissue host

418
Q

Second trimester of pregnancy

A

Tremendous growth

  • Fetus begin to move in amniotic fluid
  • Embryo begins to look human
419
Q

Where is sperm produced

A

Seminiferous tubules

420
Q

Differentation stage of cell specialization

A

Changing structure, function and biochem of celll becoming its determined cell type

421
Q

Connective Tissue + composition

A

Most abundant tissue in body
-Basic components: cells & exc. matrix

FLAMMP: Fibroblast, Leukocytes, Adipocytes, Macrophage, Mast Cell, Plasma Cell
Fibroblast: Secrete fibers and matrix material
Macrophage: Digests foreign material
Plasma Cell: Produces antibodies -> inflammatory response
Mast Cell: Produces histamine -> inflammatory response
Adipocytes: Fat cells -> store energy in form of of fat
Leukocytes: WBCs -> immune/allergic response

422
Q

What type of disease is color blindness

A

X-linked recessive

423
Q

How does aldosterone affect kidney function

A

DCT: promotes Na+ reabsorption
Collecting: Inc reabsorption of water
-Greater water retention/more concentrated urine

424
Q

Analagous structures associated with which type of evolution

A

Convergent evolution\

-SImilar features but not derived from common ancestor

425
Q

Metaphase I

A

Held by one intead of two spindle fibers

426
Q

Allantois

A

Early fluid exchange between embryo and yolk sac

427
Q

Types of WBC and functions

A 
Neutrophil: acute bacterial
Eosinophil: Parasitic
Basophil: Allergic reactions
Lymphocyte: Viral -> T-cells/B-cells
Monocyte: Viral Chronic
428
Q

Homologous structures are associated with which type of evolution

A

Divergent

  • Indicate species deriving from same ancestor
  • Do not need to have same function as ancestor
429
Q

Flow of blood through valves from body

A

Blood from body enters through superior/inferior vena cavae
Right Atrium -> Right ventricle through Tricuspid valve
Right Ventricle -> Lungs through pulmonary valves that connect to pulmonary arteries
Lungs to pulmonary veins to L Atrium
L atrium to L ventricle through mitral/bicuspid valve
L ventricle to aorta via aortic valve -> pumped to rest of body

430
Q

What stages of cell cycle are interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

431
Q

What are heterozygous females of x-linked traits called

A

Carriers

432
Q

Why does the blastula need to burrow into the endometrium

A

Creates interface for maternal blood supply

433
Q

Prophase I

A

Homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine

  • Crossing over: between homologus chromosomes
  • Leads to genetic recombination and inc variety of genetic combinations
434
Q

Where do sperm travel during ejaculation?

A

Travels through vas deferens and enter ejaculatory duct at posterior edge of prostate gland
-Two ejaculatory ducts fuse to form urethra

435
Q

How do peptide hormones travel through the bloodstream?

A

They are water-soluble so travel quickly through the bloodstream without needing carrier proteins

436
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Cannot survive in oxygen-containing enviornment

437
Q

What is the main protein associated with control of checkpoints

A

p53

-Common mutation target for cancer -> unchecked cell division

438
Q

Morphogens

A

Can cause neighboring cells to follow certain developmental pathway

439
Q

Rough ER vs SMooth ER

A

Rough: studded with ribosomes
-Translation of proteins
Smooth: no ribosomes
-Lipid synthesis and detox of drugs/poisons

440
Q

Cervix

A

Lower end of uterus

  • Connects to vaginal canal
  • Where sperm are deposited
441
Q

Lysogenic cycle

A

Virus does not lyse bacterium but integrates into host genome as provirus/prophage

  • Virus replicated as bacterium reproduces as part of genome
  • Infection with one strain of phase makes bacterium less susceptible to infection
442
Q

Tenets of natural selection theory

A
  1. Organisms produce offpsring but few survive to reproductive maturity
  2. Chance variations within individuals can be heritable
  3. Individuals with greater preponderance for favorable mutations are more likely to survie to reproductive age
    - Leads to higher freq of these traits in future generations
443
Q

Effects of melatonin

A

Sleepiness sensation

444
Q

Prokaryotic DNA characteristics

A

Located in nucleoid region

  • Carried on single circular chromosomes
  • Can also be carried on plasmids
445
Q

Chromosomal mutations duplication

A

Segment of DNA copied multiople times in a genome

446
Q

Where does anything not reabsorbed by collecting duct go?

A

It collcets in renal pelvis -> flows through ureter to bladder
-Stored in bladder until excreted via urination

447
Q

Lysosomes

A

Membrane-bound structures with hydrolytic enzymes

448
Q

S: Synthesis Phase

A

Cells replicate genetic material and have exactly identical copies
-Two identical chromatids bound together by centromere

449
Q

What hormone induces FSH and LH levels?

A

GnRH

450
Q

Function of melanin

A

Protects skin from UV radiation

  • Levels of melanin results from activity levells of melanocytes
  • Skin color produced by varying levels of melanin
451
Q

Flagella function

A

Long, whip-like structures used for propulsion

-Can be used to move toward or away from food/toxins

452
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

Rising and falling of estrogen/progesterone in female reproductive years

453
Q

What situation induces ADH release

A

Low blood volume

-Want greater retention of H20

454
Q

Gonads of males

A

Testes

455
Q

Arteroiles constriction function for thermoregulation

A

Blood near skin is limited by this constriction

456
Q

Path from spermatogonium to spermatozoa?

A

Spermatogonium replicated: diploid primary spermatocytes

  1. After first meiosis, haploid secondary spermatic
  2. After second meiosis, haploid spermatids
  3. Spermatids undergo maturation and become mature spermatozoa
457
Q

Benefits of conjugation

A

Allows for rapid acquisition of abx resitance or virulence factors throughout the colony

458
Q

What is adaptive radiation

A

Rapid rise of number of diff species from a common ancestor

-Alllows for various species to occupy diff niches

459
Q

Punnet square ratios for mendel when crossing homozygous dominant and recessive parents

A

F1 genotypic ratio: 100% Pp heterozygous
-Phenotypic: 100% purple
F2 genotypic ratio: 25% PP, 50% Pp, 25% pp
-Phenotypic: 3 purple 1 white

460
Q

Expressivity def

A

Varying phenotypes depite identical genotypes

-Constant or variable

461
Q

Metaphase

A

Kinetochore fibers align chromosomes at metaphase plate

462
Q

Retrovirus structure

A

Enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses with virions of two identical RNA molecules

463
Q

Specification stage of cell specialization

A

Cell reversibly designated as specific cell type

464
Q

Connective vs Epithelial Tissue

A

Connective: More extracellular matrix

  • Lots of blood vessels
  • Underlying surface layers

Epithelial: More cells

  • No blood vessels
  • Form surface layers
465
Q

Function of ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)

A

Regulates salt and H20 balance

  • Promotes excretion of Na+ and inc in urine volume
  • Antagonistic to aldosterone
466
Q

Interkinesis

A

Ocassional short rest period between meiosis I and II

467
Q

Monozygotic twins fertilization process

A

When zygote splits into two

468
Q

Apoptosis steps

A

Cells divide into self-containted protrusions called apoptotic blebs
-Can be further divided into apoptotic bodies and digested by other cells

469
Q

Gram positive cell wall characteristics

A

Thick layer of peptidoglycan

  • Cell wall contains lipotechoic acid
  • Purple stain
470
Q

Why aren’t there cells or proteins in filtrate

A

The glomerular pores are too small for these molecules to fit so they remain in the blood

471
Q

Type II diabetes treatment

A

Req insulin only when body can’t control gluc levels

472
Q

Corona radiata

A

Outside of zona pellucida and layer of cells adhered to oocyte during ovulation

473
Q

Transduction (prokaryotic)

A

Requires a vector: virus that carries genetic material from one cell to another

  • Performed by bacteriophages
  • Bacteriophage infects host genome and incorporates a segment of its DNA
  • When it infects another bacterium, can release this DNA into new host cell
474
Q

Difference between meiosis one and two

A

Reductional division: Meiosis I reults in haploid daughter cells from a diploid parent cell
vs equational division: Meiosis II results in haploid daughter cells from haploid parent cells
-No change in ploidy

475
Q

What stimulates prolactin secretion?

A

Estrogen and progesterone

476
Q

What type of system typically regulates endorcine system

A

Negative feedback: hormone later in pathway inhibits hormones earlier in pathway

477
Q

Transformation

A

Integration of foreign genetic material into host genome

-After lysing, contents spilled into vicinity of a bacterium capable of transformatino

478
Q

Transposons

A

Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from genome
-Disrupts affected gene

479
Q

Absorption GI System def

A

Involves tranposrt of products of digestion from digestive tract into circulatory system to distribute into tissue and cells

480
Q

Path of food in and out of body

A

Oral cavity -> phaynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum

481
Q

Enteric nervous system

A

Neurons that govern function of GI system

  • Do not need to send messages to brain to do stuff
  • Triger peristalsis
482
Q

Peristalsis def

A

Rhythmic contractions of gut tube that moves materials through the system

483
Q

What types of digestion does the oral cavity do?

A

Both mechanical and chemical digestion of food

484
Q

What type of digestion is chewing

A

Mastication -> mechanical

485
Q

Function of chewing/mastication

A

Inc. surface area-to-volme ratio of food

  • Creates more surface area for enzymatic digestion
  • Allows food to enter esophagus
486
Q

Chemical digestion of oral cavity

A

Saliva produced by three pairs of salivary glands

-Salivary amylase, lipas

487
Q

functions of sailvary amylase and lipase

A

Lipase: hydrolyzes lipids
Amylase: hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars

488
Q

Sections of the pharynx

A

Nasopharynx: behind nasal cavity
oropharynx: at back of mouth
Laryngopharynx: above the vocal cor

489
Q

Pharynx function

A

Connects mouth to larynx

490
Q

Epiglottis

A

Prevents food from entering larynx during swallowing

491
Q

Esophagus function

A

Connect pharynx to stomach

492
Q

Is the esophagus under voluntary control

A

Only the top third, the rest is under involuntary control

493
Q

rugae def

A

Folds in the stomach

494
Q

What do mucous cells produce

A

bicarbonate

495
Q

What do chief cells produce

A

Pepsinogen

496
Q

What is pepsinogen and what is proudced by

A

inactive form of pepsin

-Produced by chief cells

497
Q

What do G cells produce

A

Gastrin

498
Q

Function of gastrin

A

Released from stomach in response to food

  • Causes parietal cells to secrete HCl and chief cells to release pepsinogen
  • Inc gastric emptying and send chyme to the duodenum
499
Q

Function of HCl

A

Cleaves pepsinogen into its active form pepsin

500
Q

What do parietal cells produce

A

HCl

-Also intrinsic factor: leads to absorption of vitamin B12

501
Q

Why is secretin released

A

because of the acidity of the stomach when food/chyme enters into the small intestine

502
Q

What is the role of bicarbonate in the GI system

A

It neutralizes the chyme in the duodenum

503
Q

Role of secretin

A

Inhibit’s gastric effects

-Slows gastric emptying

504
Q

Cholecystokinin CCK functions

A

Causes:

  • Release of pancreatic enzymes -> lipase
  • Cause gall bladder to contract -> release bile
  • Dec stomach motility
  • Inhibits somatostatin -> promotes satiety
505
Q

What releases CCK

A

Small intestine

506
Q

What causes CCK to be released

A

Presence of fat

507
Q

Exocrine functions of pancreas

A

Acinar cells produce pancreatic juices

-Use for digestion

508
Q

Function of pancreatic amylase and lipase

A

Amylase: Breaks down large polysaccharides into small dissacharides
Lipase: Breaks down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol

509
Q

Enteropeptidase function

A

Master switch

  • Converts trypsinogen to trypson
  • Activates other zymogens and activates carboxypepidases
510
Q

Where is the liver located

A

RUQ of abdomen

511
Q

What are the bile ducts

A

Contains bile and connects liver with gallbladder with small intestine

512
Q

Where does liver receive blood from

A

Hepatic portal vein

513
Q

Where does blood in the liver drain to

A

Inferior vena cava

514
Q

Function of liver

A 
Produce glucose via 
     glycogenolysis and 
     gluconeogenesis
Sugar converted to glycogen
Fats stored as triacylglycerols
Detoxifies ammonia into urea
Detoxifies alcohol and meds
Produces bile
Creates bilirubin which breaks 
     down Hb
Synthesizes albumin
Synthesizes clotting factors
515
Q

what is bile made of

A

Bilirubin -> byproduce of hemoglobin breakdown

-Bile salts and cholesterol

516
Q

When does jaundice occur

A

Yellowing of skin caused by liver inability to process/excrete bilirubin

517
Q

What is albumin

A

Maintains plasma oncotic pressure and carrier for drugs/hormones

518
Q

Where is the gallbladder

A

Under liver

519
Q

Function of gallbladder

A

Stores/concentrates bile

520
Q

When is bile released

A

CCK is present

-Site of cholesterol/bilirubin stone formation

521
Q

Jejunum and ileum function

A

Involved absorption of nutrients

-Contain villi

522
Q

Function of villi/microvilli

A

increase surface area for absorption

523
Q

Components of villi

A

Capillary bed for water soluble nutrient absorption and a lacteal which takes up fats and transports them into lymphatic system

524
Q

Pathway of fat soluble vitamin absorption

A

Fat soluble vitamins dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter lymphatic circulation

525
Q

Pathway of water soluble vitamin absorption

A

Taken up with water/aa’s/carbs across endothelial cells and directly into plasma

526
Q

Function of cecum

A

Accepts fluid from small intestine and attaches to appendix

  • Reabsorbs water
  • Concentrates remaining material to form feces
527
Q

Function of anus

A

Opening through which wasters are eliminated

528
Q

Internal vs external anal sphincter

A

Inner is involuntary, outer is voluntary

529
Q

Role of bacteria in GI system

A

Produce vitamins

  • Outcompete foreign bacteria
  • In return,a re fed steady source of food
530
Q

Does ADH/aldosterone promote thirst?

A

yes

531
Q

Which hormones promote hunger

A

Glucagon and ghrelin

532
Q

Which hormones promote satiety

A

Leptin and CCK

533
Q

Red fibers def

A

slow-twitch fibers

  • High myoglobin and primaryily do aerobic energy
  • COntain lots of mitochondria
534
Q

White fibers def

A

Fast-twitch fibers

  • Much less myoglobin
  • Appear lighter because less myoglobin
535
Q

Why do red twitch fibers look red

A

Because when iron binds to myoglobin, the heme group is red

-Red twitch fibers have a lot of Myoglobin

536
Q

Tonus def

A

Constant state of low level contraction of muscles

537
Q

How are cardiac muscles connected

A

Via intercalated discs containing a lot of gap junctions

538
Q

Function of gap junctions

A

Allow for rapid/coordinated depolarization of muscle cells and efficient contractions

539
Q

Pathway of electrical conduction in heart

A

Depolarization spread from Sinoatrial node to atrioventricular node to Bundle of His to Purkinje Fibers

540
Q

M-line

A

Center of sarcomere through middle of myosins

541
Q

I-Band

A

exclusively thin filaments

542
Q

H-zone

A

Only thick filaments

543
Q

A-Band

A

Thick everywhere but some overlap with thin filaments

544
Q

Which areas of sarcomere don’t shorten during contraction

A

A-band

545
Q

myofibrils def

A

Mutliple sarcomeres attached end to end

546
Q

What surrounds the myofirbils

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

547
Q

Function of sarcolasmic reticulum

A

High concentration of Ca2+ ions

548
Q

Sarcolemma

A

Cell membrane of a myocyte

-

549
Q

sarcomere

A

Can propagate action potential to all sarcomeres within a myofibril via T-tubules

550
Q

What is a myocyte composed of

A

Many myofibrils arranged in parallel

551
Q

Composition of muscles

A

Myocytes in parallel

552
Q

How does the nervous system communicate with muscles

A

Via motor/efferent neurons

553
Q

What happens when a signal reaches a nerve terminal

A

Acetylcholine is released into synapse

554
Q

Motor unit composition

A

Nerve terminal and its myocytes

555
Q

Nerve terminal def

A

Controls group of myocytes

556
Q

Depolarization propagation steps in sarcomeres

A

Spreads down sarcolemma to T-tubiules

-Reaches sarcoplasmic reticulum and Ca2+ released

557
Q

Function of Ca2+ in depolarization of muscles

A

Binds to regulatory subunit in troponin

  • Tropomyocin undergoes conformation change
  • Myosin-binding sites now exposed on actin
558
Q

Sliding filament model steps

A
  1. ATP hydrolysed to ADP+Pi
  2. Ca2+ binds to troponin, myosin binds to actin
  3. Powerstroke occurs, sarcomere contracts,
    - ADP + Pi dissociate from myosin
  4. New ATP binds to Myosin
    - myosin detaches from actin
  5. Cycle repeats
559
Q

How is acetylcholine broken down

A

In synapse by acetylcholinesterase

-Terminates signal at neuromuscular junction

560
Q

What happens when acetylcholine is broken down

A

Sarcolemma repolarizes

  • Ca2+ stops being released
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum takes Ca2+ back up from sarcoplasm
  • No Ca2+ -> myosin-binding sites once again covered by tropomyosin
561
Q

What dictates the strength of a response for muscles

A

The number of motor units that reach the threshold volume of an action potential

MCAT (12 decks)

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