Biology Flashcards
1
Q
How often does menstruation occur?
A
One egg per month ovulated into peritoneal sac
- Drawn into fallopian tube
- Fallopian tubes have cilia which propel egg forward to uterus
2
Q
Portal system definition
A
Two capillary beds in series through which blood travels before returning to the heart
3
Q
Paracrine signals
A
Signals act on cells in a certain area
4
Q
Calcitonin effect
A
Dec. Ca absorption from gut, inc storage of Ca in bone, inc Ca excretion from kidneys
5
Q
Hook (flagella)
A
Connects filament and basal body so that as basal body rotates, it exerts torque on filament and spins/propels bacterium forward
6
Q
Apoptosis
A
Programmed cell death
7
Q
How are primary germ layers formed?
A
When cells migrate from blastocoel remains
8
Q
Binary fission
A
Asexual reproduction of prokaryotes
- Circular chromosome attaches to cell wall while replicating
- Produces two identical daughter cells
9
Q
Founder effect
A
extreme case of genetic drift when smalll population finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations
-Inbreeding leads to homozygosity and inc prevalence of homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes
10
Q
Function of cell wall
A
Forms outer barrier of cell
- Provides structure
- Controls movement of solutes in/out
11
Q
WHat are fingerhails and nails composed off
A
Keratin
12
Q
Mineralcorticoids function
A
Salt and water homeostasis in kidneys
13
Q
Dizygotic Twins process of fertilization
A
Two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle
-Fertilized by two different sperm
14
Q
Where do solutes reabsorbed in PCT go?
A
They enter the insterstitium then pass through the vasa recta and return to the bloodstream
15
Q
What hormone affects TSH release?
A
TRH
16
Q
How is fertilzation by multiple sperm stopped?
A
After penetration by a sperm, cortical reaction occurs -> release of Ca2+ ions
- Depolarizes membrane
- Inc metabolic rate of newly formed diploid zygote
17
Q
What are the three processes kidney uses to regulate blood volume and osmolarity
A
filtration, secretion, reabsorption
18
Q
Pleural Cavity of Lungs
A
Filled with lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes
19
Q
How to germ cells divide?
A
Meiosis
20
Q
What type of cells are germ cells?
A
Haploid
21
Q
Luteal phase
A
LH causes ruptured follicle to form corpus luteum
- Prog levels start to rise
- Prog maintains uterine lining for sperm implantation
- Estrogen levels remain low
- High levels of prog cause negative feedback of GnRH, LH, FSH -> prevents ovulation of multiple eggs
22
Q
Differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis
A
- limited supply of stem cells
- By birth, all oogonia are primary oocytes and arrested in prophase1 - oogeneis creates one oocyte instead of four mature spermatocytes
- Secondary oocyte arrested in metaphase II until fertilization
23
Q
When is the second checkpoint of the cell cycle and what is checked?
A
End of G2
- Ensures DNA replication had no errors
- Ready to enter mitosis
24
Q
How do viruses reproduce?
A
After infection, translation of viral genetic material must occur for reproduction
- DNA viruses have to enter nucleus before transcription and translation
- Positive sense viruses stay in cytoplasm for direct translation
- Once viral genome is replicated, can be packaged in capsid to infect other cells
25
Adrenal glands location
On top of kidney
26
Prostate gland and seminal vesicles work together to?
Give seminal fluid mildly alkaline properties so sperm can survive in relative acidity of female reproductive tract
27
Death phase of bacterial growth
Once bacteria have exceeded ability/resources of environment to support them
-Mass death of cells
28
What causes parturition/pregnancy
Accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle and coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin
29
Loop of henle located in what region of kidney?
Descends and ascends in outer/inner medulla
30
What vascular structures are contained in the umbilical cord?
Two arteries and one vein
- Arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste back to mother
- Vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients to baby
31
What do FLAT and PEG mean in FLAT PEG
FLAT: tropic hormones
PEG: direct hormones
32
Neo-darwinism changes to include recombinatino
Differential reproduction: populations evolve not individuals
-When recombination or mutation results in favorable change, change is more likely to be passed on to next generation
33
What is Oogenesis
Production of female gametes
34
What hormone does the heart release
Atrial natriuretic peptide
35
Equations of harvey weinberg equilibrium
```
p+q=1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
-p=dominant allele freq
-q=recessive allele freq
-p^2 = freq of homozygous dominant
-2pg = freq of heterozygote
-q^2 = freq of homozygous recessive
-p^2 + 2pq = freq of dominant phenotype
```
36
Internal urethral sphincter
Composed of smooth muscle
- Contracted in normal state
- Under involuntary control
37
How does mitosis occur in germ cells
Mitosis only occurs in somatic cells
38
Senescense
Biological aging
| -Occurs at cellular and organismal levels
39
Plasmids
Carry DNA not necessary for survival of prokaryotic cell but can help with antibiotic resistance
-Could carry virulence factors that increase pathogenecity
40
Dermis def
Contains Papillary layer and reticular layer of skin
Papillary: Composed of loose connective tissue
Reticular layer: Below papillay and much denser
41
Cortisol function
Raise blood gluc by inc gluconeogenesis and dec protein synthesis
-Dec inflammation and immunologic response
42
What are the female gonads
Ovaries: produce estrogen and progesterone
43
Calcitonin produced by?
Follicular cells produce parafollicular cells in thyroid
44
What energy source do the use sperm use?
fructose
45
Where are the ovaries located?
Thousands of follicles located in pelvic cavity
46
How does growth hormone perform its function?
Prevents glucose uptake in some tissues and stimulates fatty acid breakdown
47
Speciation def
Formation of a new species via evolution
| -Could occur based on isolation of two populations
48
Amnion
Surrounds allantois
| -Thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid
49
Chorionic villi
penetrate endometrium and support maternal-fetal gas exchange
50
Neurulation
Development of nervous system
- Rod of mesodermal cells called notochord forms along axis of organism
- Neural folds grow towards each other and form neural tube = CNA
- Neural crest cells at tip of folds migrate outwards to form PNS and specific cell types
- Ectodermal cells migrate to neural tube to cover nervous system
51
Stratum granulosum def
Keratinoctytes die here and lose their nuclei
52
How long is the effects of steroid hormones?
Slower but longer-lived effects than peptide hormones
53
Asters
Anchor centrioles to cell membrane
54
Ascending loop of henle permeability
Only permeable to salts
| -Impermeable to water
55
Function of amniotic fluid
Shock absorber for maternal motion
56
What is gastrulation?
Generation of three distinct cell layers
| -Forms primary germ cell layers
57
Gram negative cell wall
Thin layer with peptidoglycan
- Cell walls separated from membrane by periplasmic space
- Outer membrane has phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides
- Stain pink
58
Where are parathyroid hormones located?
On top of posterior surface of thyroid
59
Islates of langerhan function
Small clusters of hormone producing cells grouped together
60
Seminal vesicles
Contribute fructose to nourish sperm
61
What are the three types of hormones released by pancreas
Alpha, beta and delta cellls
62
When is erythropoietin protein secreted
In response to low O2 levels in blood
63
Angiotensin aldosterone system steps
1. Dec BP-> juxtaglomerular cells in kidney secrete renin
2. Renin cleaves inactive angiotensinogen into active angiotensin I
3. Angiotensin I converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme
4. Angiotension II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
5. Once BP restored, Renin no longer released
- Negative feedback
64
What are starling forces
Govern movement of fluid into Bowman's space
| -Account for H-static and oncotic pressure differentials between blood and Bowman's space
65
Indeterminate vs determinate cleavage
Determinate: cells are already determined
-COmmitted to differentiations into a certain cell type
Indeterminate: Cells can still develop into complete organisms
66
Parallel evolution
When related species evolve in a similar way for a long period of time
67
How do X-linked diseases work?
If recessive, female needs allele on both X chromosomes
- If only have allele on one X chromosome -> carrier
- For males, only have one X chromosome so if they carrier the allele, have disease
68
Genetic drift def
Changes in gene pool due to chance
| -More pronounced in small populations
69
How does the hypothalamus regulate pituitary gland?
Via tropic hormones
| -Paracrine release into portal system
70
What phenomenon is melatonin related to
Circadian rhythms
71
What stimulates calcitonin secretion?
High levels of Ca2+ in blood
72
Reticular Fibers
Made of collagen proteins
- Arranged in thin networks
- Net arrangement as a support network
73
Menstruation steps
- Corpus luteum loses stimulation from LH
- Prog levels decline
- Uterine lining sloughed off
- Lower levels of estro/prog allow GnRH to be released and next cycle to begin
74
Vaginal birth alternate name
Parturition
75
Osmotic pressure vs oncotic pressure
Osmotic: sucking pressure that draws water into vasculature
Oncotic: Osmotic pressure attributable to dissolved proteins specifically
76
Micturition reflex
- When bladder full, stretch receptors tell nervous system to empty it
- Parasympathetic neurons fire causing dtrusor muscle to contract
- Internal sphincter relaxes
- Individual then has choice to mtaintain tone of external to prevent urination
77
Complete dominance def
When only one dominant and one recessive allele exist for a gene
78
Regenerative capacity
Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body
| -Stem cells can migrate to appropriate part of body to initiate regrowth
79
What does GnRH trigger during puberty
Triggers anterior pituitary to synthesize and release FSH and LH
80
Type I Alveolar Cell
Simple Squamous Epithelial
| -Main site of gas exchange
81
What hormone affects ACTH release?
CRH
82
What process does zygote undergo during its travel to uterus?
Rapid cell division -> cleavage
| -Oficially creates embryo
83
Protein fibers vs Ground substance
```
Protein fibers: Strengthen and Support tissue
-Secreted by connective tissue cells
—Collagen
—Elastic
—Reticular
```
Ground substance:
- Material between cells and fibers
- Supports and bind cells
- Stores water
- fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, calcified
- Contains Glycosaminoglycans
84
Chromosomal mutations insertion
When a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another
85
Obligate aerobes
Require O2 for metabolism
86
Totipotent stem cells
Can divide into any cell type
| -Prior to formation of germ layers
87
What does fewer sequence repeats of an allele indicate?
reduced, low or non penetrance
88
Constant vs variable expressivity
COnstant: All inviduals with same genotype express same phenotype
Variable: Individuals with same genotype can have different phenotypes
89
Microfilaments
Made of actin -> organized into bundles
- Resist compression/fractre -> protection
- Role in cytokinesis -> contained in cleavage furrow
90
Stationary phase of bacterial growth
As number of bacteria inc, resources are reduced
| -Reproduction slows
91
What is the functional unit of the kidney
The nephron
92
Penetrance def
Population metric that measures proportion of individuals carrying a certain allele who actually express the phenotype
-Probability that given a particular genotype, person expresses the phenotype
93
Type II Alveolar Cell
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial
-Secretes Alveolar fluid and surfactant
Alveolar fluid: keeps surface between cell and air moist
Surfactant: Prevents alveolar collapse -> keeps alveoli open
94
How do peptide hormones signal for cellular change?
After bidning to extracellular receptor, induce signaling cascade
1. 1st messenger is peptide hormone that binds to receptor
2. Trasmission of 2nd signal/messenger triggered
3. 2nd messenger affects the intended change
95
Long term stress hormone vs Short term stress
```
Cortisol = long term
Catecholamines = short term (epi/norepi)
```
96
Functions of excretory system
Regulation of blood pressure
Reulgation of blood osmolarity and acid-base balance
Removal of nitrogenous waste
97
Function of ascending vs descending loops of henle
Descending: Maximizes water reabsorption
Ascending: max salt reabsorption
98
What cortical sex hormones released by adrenal glands
Androgens and estrogens
99
How do T3 and T4 affect change?
Make energy production more/less efficient and alter utilization of glucose and fatty acids
-Higher T3 = more cellular respiration
100
ER
SEries of interconneted membranes continuous with nuclear envelope
101
Genes
DNA sequences that code for heritable traits passed from generation to the next
-Organized on chromosomes
102
G2 Postsynaptic Gap phase
Further protein syntehsis and rapid cell growh
- Microtubules being to reorganize to form a spindle
- Second checkpoint
103
Parts of a mature sperm
Head: cap with acrosome
Mid piece: filled with mitochondria to generate ATP for swimming through reproductive tract
Flagellum: motility
104
What mutations occur in species well suited to their habitat
No changes ar elikely to occur
105
What Is Mendel's 2nd Law and what aspect of meiosis explains it?
INheritance of one allele has no effect on likelihood of inheriting alleles for other genes
-Explained by crossing over
106
Chromosomal mutations Deletion
Large segment of DNA lost from chromosome
107
Full penetrance sequence repeats
40 sequence repeats
| 100% of individuals with allele show phenotype
108
Where does fertilization occur?
Widest part of fallopian tube -> ampulla
109
Puncuated equilibrium
Change in some species occurs in rapid bursts instead of gradually over time
110
Prolactin function
Stimulates mmilk production in mammary glands
| -Smooth muscles in breast contract
111
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
First line of defense against microbes -> protection against abrasion of water loss
- Nonkeratinized: Mouth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, vagina
- Keratinized: Superficial layer of skin
112
Tight Junctions vs Adherens Junctions
Tight: Form fluid-tight seals between cells
- Preventing substances from passing through -> no leaky organs
- Lining of stomach, intestines, bladder
Adherens: Help epithelial surfaces resist separation during movement
-Connect actin cytoskeleton of cells together
113
Blastula structure
Hollow ball of cells in fluid-filled cavity
114
Bacterial shapes
Spherical = cocci
Rod-shaped bacteria = bacilli
Spiral-shaped = spirili
115
Zona Pellucida
Surrounds oocyte and a cellular mix of glycoproteins to protect oocyte and compounds needed for sperm binding
116
Where do spermatozoa gain mobility
Sperm are passed to epididymis where they gain mobility
117
What substances are always reabsorbed
Glucose, vitamins, amino acids
118
What drugs inhibit ADH release and what are their effects
Caffeine and alcohol inhibit ADH release
| -Lead to freq urination of dilute urine
119
Law of Segregation
Either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell
120
Directional selection ef
Emergence and dominance of initially extreme phenotype
121
what hormones does adrenal medulla release
Promote sympathetic hormones epi and norepi
122
Cowper’s/Bulbourethral Gland
Produces clear viscous fluid that clears out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal
123
Areolar Connective tissue
Strength, elasticity, support
- In and around nearly every structure
- Packing material
124
Facultative Anaerobes
Can toggle between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism based on O2 concentration
125
Direction of genetic info transfer in conjugation
Male donor to recipient female
| -Male donor needs plasmids for sex factors
126
Where are the testis located
In the scrotum (external pouch below penis)
127
Peroxisomes
Contain hydrogen peroxide
| -Break down of long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation
128
Types of amino acid derivatives?
Epi and norepi
| -Catcholamines
129
Punnet square variables
P generation = parent -> gets crossed
F1 generation = their offspring
F2= offpsring of the offspring
130
When does menstruation occur
Only if implantation doesn’t occur
131
Transitional Epithelium
Allows urinary organs to stretch
- Maintains protective lining without rupturing
- Urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra
132
High penetrance sequence repeats
Fewer sequence repeats
| Most with allele show phenotype
133
Filtration steps
1. Fluid moves into Bowman's spaces based on Starling forces
2, Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus much higher than that in Bowman's space so fluid moves into nephron
-This diff in H-static pressure overrides higher osmolarity of blood in Bowman's space that opposes fluid movement into nephron
134
Structure of Bacteriophages?
Tail sheath: syringe that injects genetic material into bacteria
Tail fibers: help bacteriophage recognize and connect to correct host cell
135
Contrast R from L Lung
R lung:
-Shorter, wider, 3 lobes
L lung:
-longer, narrower, two lobes, cardiac notch
136
Erythropoietin function
Stimulates bone marrow to inc erythrocyte production
137
What is descending loop of henle mostly permeable to?
Primarily permeable to water
138
Juxtacrine
Involve a cell directly stimulating receptors of an adjacent cell
139
What does respiratory system do if blood pH too high
Decreases respiratory rate
| -Increased conversion of CO2 and water in forward direction of equation to create more H+ and HCO3-
140
How does ADH affect kidney function
Only in colelcting duct
- Inc reabsorption of water
- Greater water retention/more concentrated urine
141
Yolk sac function
Site of early blood cell development
142
Conjugation
Bacterial mating/sexual reproductions
- Two bacterial cells form conjugation bridge: facilitates transfer of genetic material
- Transfer is unidirectional
- Bridge made from sex pili from donor male
- Copy of genome attempted to transfer but usually not completed
143
Where do peptide hormones bind?
They are charged so they cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer
-Bind to extracellular ligand
144
How is viral progeny released?
Released when cell death initiated by virus
- Spills progeny
- Could also result from host cell lysing by large numbers of virion
- Can also be by fusing with cell membrane -> productive cycle
145
What system controls aldosterone secretion
angiotensin aldosterone system
146
Episomes
Plasmids capable of integrating into genome of bacteria
147
Glucocorticoids function
Steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels
148
Negative sense single stranded virus RNA
Strand is template for synthesis of complementary strand
- Complementary strand used as template for protein synthesis
- Must have RNA replicase to ensure complementary strand synthesized
149
Hypothyroidism effects
Lethargy, dec body temp, slowed respiration, low HR
150
Presygotic mechanisms of speciation
```
Pre: prevent formation of zygote completely
-Temporal
behavioral
reproductive
genetic isolation
```
151
G0 stage
Cell not carrying out functions in preparation for division
152
Anaerobes
Do not require oxygen by using fermentation for metabolism
153
Ovulation
Eventually estrogen reaches concentration threshold that results in positive feedback of GnRH, LH, FSH to spike
- Surge in LH induces ovulation
- Release of ovum from ovary into peritoneal cavity
154
Hypodermis def
subcutaneous layer below dermis
155
Induction
Process of groups of cells to influence nearby cells
| -Ensures different cell types work together within an organ
156
3rd trimester
Continued rapid growth
-more brain development
antibodes transported from mother to fetus
-Growth rate slows and fetus is less active because less room
157
Retrovirus mechanism
DNA integrates into host cell genome and is replicated/transcribed
- Cell is infected indefinitely
- Only way to remove infection is to kill cell
158
Pluripotent stem cells
Can differentiate into any cell type not in placental structures
-After formation of the three germ layers
159
How do viruses reproduce?
Cannot reproduce independently
- Obligate intracellular parasites
- Must express and replicate genetic info within host cell
- Replicate and produce virions to infect additional cells
160
Role of blastocyst in fertilization
- Secretes hCG -> analog of LH
- Maintains corpus luteum
- Critical during 1st trimester
161
What results from fertilization
Zygote develops into blastocyst and implants into uterine lining
162
Pulmonary Respiration is -____
gas exchange in alveoli
163
Translocation Chromosomal mutations
Segment of DNA from one chromosome swapped with a segment of DNA from another
164
Autocrine signals
signals act on same cell that secreted the signal
165
What is the first checkpoint of the cell cycle and during what phase is it locarted?
End of G1 phase
| -Checks if cell is ready to commit to cell division and replicate DNA
166
Trachea Composition
Contains hyaline cartilage
Has pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells
Also contains goblet cells
167
Vas deferens
Layer of muscle that regulates temp of sperm development
168
How does the pineal gland know to release melatonin
Receives projections from retina by responding to intensity of sunlight
169
Prophase
Condensation of chromatin into chromosomes
- Centrioles pair and separate to opposite side of cell
- Centrioles begin to form spindle finbers
170
Simple columnar epithelium
Nonciliated: More secretion and absorption than cuboidal
-GI tract -> stomach, gallbladder, ducts of glands
Ciliated: Moves particles away
-Bronchioles of respiratory tract, uterine fallopian tube
171
Microtubules
Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins
| -Primary pathway for motor proteins like kinesin and dynein to carry vesicles
172
Three layers of wall of heart
Epicardium, myocardium and endocardium
173
Gene pool def
All alleles that exist within a species
| -New genes added via mutations or gene leakage
174
What are cycline
Bind to cyclin-dependent kinases CDKs that can phosphorylate transcription factors'
-Promote transcription of genes required for the next cell cycle
175
Anaphase
Centromeres split so each chromitd has own centromere
| -Sister chromatids separate -> pulled to opposite sides
176
Stabilizing selection def
Keeps phenotypes within specific range by selecting against extremes
Ex: gestational weight can't be too much or too little
177
Stem cells
Cells not yet differentiated or that give rise to other cells that will differentiat
178
Tissue
Group of cells with common function that carry out specialized activities
179
List the 5 strata of the epidermis in order from deepest to shallowest
```
Stratum basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosa
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum
```
180
Who discovered transformation in bacteria
Griffith experiement -> frederick griffith
181
Bowman's capsule definition
Encases glomerulus leads to PCT
182
Aldosterone kidney pathway
1. Dec BP -> renin released from juxtaglomerular cellls
2. Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I
3. Angiotensin-convertin enzyme metabolizes angiotensin I to angiotensin II
4. Angiotensin II promotes release of aldosterone form adrenal cortex
5. Aldosterone inc Na+ reabsorption in DCT and water reabsorption in collecting duct
6. Aldosterone also inc K+ and H+ excretion
183
Bone Tissue
Support, protection, storage
- Houses blood forming tissues
- Exc. Matrix: calcified
184
Structural components of flagella
Filament, basal body, hook
185
What mutations are larger scale than nucleotide mutations
Chromosomal mutations
| -Affects large segments of DNA
186
Renal hilum
Deep slit in center of medial surface of kidney
187
Treatment for type I diabetes
Regular injections of insulin required
188
Functions of TSH
1. Set basal metabolic rate -> T3 and T4
| 2. Promote calcium homeostatsis -> Clacitonin release
189
Neo darwinism inclusive fitness
Inclusive fitness: measure of organism's success in populations based on number of offspring, success in supporting those offspring, ability of offspring to support others
- Darwin did not look at behaviors of population in relation to protecting offspring
- this includes parents nature of endangering self to protect offspring
190
What chromosomes determine 23rd Choromosomes
Biological sex
191
What happens during fertilization to secondary oocyte?
Undergoes meiosis II and splits into mature ovum and another polar body
-Consists of large quantities of cytoplasm and organelles
192
Inbreeding depression def
Loss of genetic variation may cause reduced fitness of a population
193
Endoderm
Innermost layer
| -Epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts, pancreas, thyroid, bladder parts of liver
194
How long are cells usually in interphase?
For about 90% of the time
195
Basal body (flagella)
Anchors flagellum to cytoplasmic membrane and is motor for flagellum
196
What happens when blood osmolarity is high
Water reabsorption inc and solute excretion inc
197
Errector pilli function
Contract and cause hairs on skin to stand up
| -Traps layer of heated air near skin
198
Pulmonary Ventilation is _____
Breathing
199
Codominance def
When more than one dominant allele exists for a given gene
200
Levels of human chorionic gonadotropin hCG
- Levels decline during 2nd trimester bc placenta sufficient in size to secrete prog/estro by itself
- Inhibited by high levels of prog/estro
201
Cell Junctions:
Hold individual cells together
| -Contact point between plasma membrane of neighboring cells
202
Where do renal arteries, renal veins and ureters enter and exit kidney?
Through the renal hilum
203
What type of muscles line the bladder and what division of nervous system controls them
Detrusor muscles and are controlled by parasympathetic activity
204
Postzygotic mechanisms of speciation
ALlow for gamete fusion but lead to nonviable/sterile offspring
Hybrid invariability
Hybrid sterility
Hybrid breakdown
205
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite pulls via disjunction
-Explain's Mendel's 1st law that each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin
206
Example of tropic hormone pathway
GnRH and LH don't directly induce change
| -Make gonads release testosterone in males
207
What dynamics do expressivity and penetrance reflect?
Expressivity reflects genetics at an individual level
| Penetrance: population level
208
What is the countercurrent miltiplier system in kidneys
Flow of filtrate in loop of Henle oposite direction from flow of blood in vasa recta
-Filtrate constantly exposed to hypertonic blood -> maximal reabsorption of water
209
Distal convoluted tubule function
Responds to aldosterone which promotes Na+ reabsorption
| -Waste product secretion like PCT
210
Nervous Tissue
Neurons + Neuroglia: Contact nerve impulses
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves
- Neurons & muscle cells are excitable
211
Function of hormones
Bind to receptors of tissues and induce changes in gene expression or cellular functioning
212
What type of blood carried in pulmonary venules/arterioles?
Pulmonary arteriole: deoxygenated blood -> blood coming from heart to lungs
Pulmonary Venule: Oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart
213
Effect of parathyroid hormones
Dec excretion of Ca by kidneys, inc abosrption by Ca in gut
-Also promotes phosphorus homeostatsis by inc resorption of phosphate of bone and reduced reabsorption of phosphate in kidneys
214
Stratum spinosum def
Conencted to each of the other strata
215
Determination stage of cell specialization
Cell irreversibly commits cell to a specific lineage
216
Convergent evolution def
Independent developkent of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a common ancestor
-Analagous structures
Ex: fish and dolphins resemble each other but from different classes of vertebrates
217
What hormones increase reabsorption of water
aldosterons and ADH
218
When does transduction occur in the lysogenic cycle?
If extracts portions of bacterial DNA when leaving
219
What do cells of Leydig do
Secretes testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens)
220
What tissue is hypodermis composed of
Connective tissue connnects it to skin and rest of body
| -Composed of fat and fibrous tissue
221
Ex of selective transcription
Pancreatic islet cell has genes on to produce hormones but other cells would have these genes turned off
222
Cortex vs medulla of kidney location
Cortex: outermost
Medulla: within cortex
223
Telophae I
Nuc membrane reforms, each chromosome still has two sister chromatids at centromere
-Cells are now haploid
224
Species def
Largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring
225
Genetic leakage def
Flow of genes between species
- When individuals of different but closely related species mate to produce hybrid offspring
- WHen these hybrid offspring can reproduce -> gene flow
226
Transposons def
Can insert and remove themselve from genome
| -Can disrupt a gene if inserts into its sequence
227
Mesoderm
Musculoskeletal, circulatory, most of excretory, gonads,
| -Moveoderm
228
Natural selection theory and creator
Certain characteristics/traits possed by individuals within a species may help them have greater reproductive success and pass traits off to offspring
-Charles darwin
229
Where are androgens primarily released from
Mostly from testes, some released by adrenal glands
230
Chemotaxis
Ability of cell to detect stimuli and move toward/away it
231
Hyperthyroidism
Excess of thyroid hormone
| -Opposite effects of hypothyroidism
232
What are trophoblast cells
Surround and give rise to chorion and placenta
| -Protudes into blastocoel annd gives rise to organism itself
233
Gap Junctions
Fluid-filled tunnels -> connexons between cells
- Allows cells to rapidly communicate with each other
- Enable impulses to travel quickly from cell to cell
Found in:
Cardiac muscle tissue
Smooth of intestines/uterus
Nervous tissue
234
Where are steroid hormones produced
Gonads and adrenal cortex
235
Teratogens
Substances that interfere with development
| -Can cause defects or death of embryo
236
Dense regular vs irregular connective
Regular: Withstands pulling/tension along axis
Irregular: Tensile pulling strength in many directions
237
Types of hormones
Peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives
238
Locus def
Location on a specific chromosome
239
Allele freq def
How often an allele appears in a population
| -Evolution results from changes in gene freq of reproducing poulations over time
240
What is the epidermis divided into
Strata
241
Growth hormone function
Promotes growth of bone and muscle
242
What type of hormones are epi and norepi
Amino-acid derivative hormones
| -Bigger group: catecholamines
243
HOw long is the duration of effect of peptide hormones?
Usually rapid effect but short-lived
| -Need constant stimulation for effect to last
244
Chorion
Extraembryonic membrane that develops into placenta
245
Responder cell
Cell that is induced into developing into a type of cell
246
Aerotolerant Anaerobes
Unable to have O2 for metabolism
| -Not harmed by presence of O2 in enviornment
247
If blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high what does urine composed of
Urine would be highly concentrated with low water volume
248
Golgi apparatus
Materials from ER transferred to golgi via vesicles
- MOdified with addition of carbs, phosphates sulfates, etc
- Repackages modified products into vesivles
- Vesicles released via exocytosis
249
Glucagon function
Inc gluc production by triggering glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and degradation of protein/fat
250
What gland releases melatonin
Pineal gland
251
Tenets of Mendel's 1st law of segregation
1. Genes exist in alrenative forms -> alleles
2. An organism has two alleles for each gene -> one inherited from each parent
3. Two alleles segregate during meiosis
- Gametes carry only one allele for any inherited trait
4. If two alleles are different, only one is fully expressed while the other is silent
- Recessive allele is silent
- This segregation occurs in anaphase I of meiosis
252
What happens if person decides not to urinate with Micturition reflex?
After a few moments of discomfort, the reflex dissipates
| -Reflex begins again shortly thereafter
253
Alveolar Macrophages
Phagocytes -> Remove debris
254
Adrenal glands components
medulla and cortex
255
What organ converts ammonia to urea and why does this conversion happen
The liver converts
| -Necessary because ammonia is a basic compiund that could mess up pH of blood and cells and urea is a neutral compound
256
What type of change does steroid hormones do?
Binding leads to conformational change of receptor which can bind to DNA
257
What does respiratory sytem do if blood pH is too low
Inc respiratory rate to blow off more CO2
Also converts H+ and HCO3- to water and CO2 to inc pH
-Bicarbonate goes in reverse direction
258
What are the four stages of regular cell cycle?
G1, S, G2, M
259
Anterior pituitary mnemonic
```
FLAT PEG
F: follicle stimulating hormone
L: Leuteinizing hormone
A: Adrenocorticoptropic hormone
T: Thyroid-stimulating hormone
P: Prolactin
E: Endorphins
G: Growth hormone
```
260
What do the equations of hardy weinberg equil tell us
1st: freq of alleles in a population
2nd: genotype and phenotype freqs in a population
261
Competent cell
When responder is able to respond to an inducing signal
262
Spermatogenesis
Formation of haploid sperm via meiosis
263
Incomplete dominance
When heterozygote expresses phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes
264
Stratum basale def
Stem cells that proliferate into keratinocytes
| -Keratonicoytes produce keratin
265
When are amino acids, gluc vitamins excreted
In secretion stage
| -Allos secretion of molecules to large for glomerular pores
266
Lytic cycle
Bacteriophage maximizes use of cell's machinery with little regard for host cell survival
- Once cell swelling with new virion, cell lyses and other bacteria can be infected
- Viruses in this phase -> virulent
267
Where does all connective tissue originate from?
Originates from mesenchymal cells in embryo
268
Oxytocin affects
- Stimulates uterine contraction
| - May be involved in bonding behavior
269
Morula
Sold mass of cells of embryo
| -Undergoes blastulation to form a blastula
270
What hormome affects prolactin release?
PIF
271
Mutation def
Changes in DNA sequence that result in mutant allele
272
Outbreeding def
Introduction of unrelated individuals into breeding group
| -Could result in inc variation and inc fitness of population
273
Capsid
Protein coat surrounded by envelope of phospholipids and virus-specific proteins
274
Hemizygous def
ONly one allele present for a gene
| Ex: On X chromosome only in males
275
Differences. between cellular and organismal level senescense
Cellular: results in failure to divide
| Organismal Level: represents changes in body's ability to respond to changing environment
276
Lobule Breakdown
Single compartment respiratory unit
| Respiratory bronchioles -> Alveolar ducts -> Alveolar sacs -> Alveoli
277
What type of cells are autosomal cells?
Diploid
278
Cellular Respiration is ____
gas exchange in the tissues
279
Multipotent cells
More specialized
| -Can differentiate into multiple types of cells within a certain group
280
External urethral sphincter
Composed of skeletal muscle -> voluntary control
281
What is a test cross
When one of the parents has an unknown genotype, cross it with a homozygous recessive genotype
282
Steps of sperm binding with secondary oocyte?
Binds and releases acrosomal enzymes to enable it to penetrate corona radiata and zona pellucida
- Forms tube-like acrosomal apparatus to penetrate cell membrane
- Pronucles freely enters oocyte
283
Simple Squamous Epithelium
- Sites of filtration and diffusion
- Lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, endothelium
- Epithelial layer of serous membranes
284
What is recombination frequency (represented by theta)
Likelihood of two alleles separated from each other during crossing over
-Roughly proportional to distance between genes on chromosome
285
Cytokinesis
Right after telophase
| -Separation of cytoplasm and organelles
286
What form is DNA stored in in viruses?
Could be circular, linear, single or double stranded
287
Effects of menopause
Menstruation stops
- Estro and Prog levels drop
- Endometrium atrophies
288
Endoprhins function
Dec percetion of pain
289
Collagen
Made of collagen protein
- Often in large bundles
- Very strong, resist pull or stretch
- Act like glue but also flexible
290
When is GnRH released?
Once puberty has started
291
How many copies of each chromosome does each person have
Two -> homologous
292
What is the product of mitosis
Two identical daughter cells
293
Role of estrogens
- Secreted in response to FSH and result in development/maintenance of female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics
- Stimulates development of reproductive tract
294
How do steroid hormones interact with blood and the membrane
Derived from a nonpolar molecule so can easily cross membrane
-Cannot freely travel through bloodstream so must be carried via carrier proteins
295
Log/exponential phase of bacterial growth
Bacteria adapts and rate of division inc
| -Exponential inc in number of bacteria
296
WHat genetic info does the Y chromosome carry?
-Has SRY gene which codes for transcription factor of testis differentiation and formation of male gonads
297
How does CV system regulate BP
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation to maintain blood pressure
| =Constriction -> lower BP in glomeruli -> inc BP in general
298
Cytoskeleton
Provides structure to cell and helps it maintain shape
- COnduit for transport of materials around cell
- Broken up into microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments
299
Function of acrosome
Penetration of ovum
300
Epiglottis Function
Prevents swallowed food from entering the trachea
301
Diploid vs Haploid
Diploid: Two copies of each chromosome
Haploid: One copy of each chromosome
302
Prolactin inhibited by?
Release of DA from hypothalamus dec secretion
303
Hypoglycemia definition
Low blood gluc concentration
304
Stratum corneum def
Several dozen layers of dead, flattened keratinocytes
- Prevents loss of fluids/salts
- Protects against Microbial production
305
ADH function
Reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys
- Inc. plasma osmolarity
- Inc. conc of solute in blood
- Inc permeability of collecting duct
306
Meiosis II
Similar to mitosis in that siter chromatids are separate
| -Different because end result is two haploid daughter cells
307
Elastic Fibers
Made of elastin protein
-Can be stretched up to 150%
Return to normal shape after stretch
-Give structures elasticity
308
Layer after the cell wall
Plasma membrane
309
Molecular clock model def
Degree of genomic similarity with amount of time some two species are split from a common ancestor
-More time = less similarity
310
Where are sperm stored prior to ejaculation?
In the epididymis
311
Selective transcription
Allows for formation of distinctive cell types
| -Only genes needed for particular cell types are transcribed
312
Portal system steps
1. Artery branches into medulla and enters cortex as afferent arterioles
2. Tufts of glomeruli connect to afferent arterioles
3. Blood passess through glomerulus and efferent arterioles to form 2nd capillary bed
4. Leads into loop of henle
5. Travels back into body
313
Collecting duct function
Responsive to both aldosterone and ADH for permeability
- If permeability inc, water is reabsorped and urine is concentrated
- If impermeable, low concentrated urine
314
Melanocytes functino
In stratum basale, produce melanin
| -Melanin transferred from melanocytes to kertainocytes
315
Somatostatin
Inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion
| -Stimulated by high blood gluc and amino acid concentration
316
Desmosomes vs Hemidesmosomes
Desmo: Link cytoskeletons of adjacent cells together
- Stability of cells and tissue
- Prevent then from separating under tension
Hemi: Connect cells to extra cellular material
-Anchor cells to basement membrane
317
Genetic map def
Can be created representing relative distance between genes on a chromosome
-One map unit equals 1% chance of recombination between two genes
318
Thymus releases what hormone
Thymosin: proper T-cell development and differentiation
319
How can peptide hormone effects be amplified?
Each step of the peptide hormone signaling pathway can be amplified by binding of hormone to multiple receptors
-Each receptor could also activate multiple enzymes and create more 2ndary messengers
320
Proximal COnvoluted Tubule function
Amino acids, gluc, water-soluble vitamins and most salts reabsorbed with water
-Secretion of waste products: K+, H+, urea
321
Recombination frequencies of tightly vs weakly linked genes
Tightly: Theta close to 0%
Loosely: theta close to 50%
322
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Secretion and Absorption
| -Kidney Tubules, ducts of glands like in thyroid
323
Phases of bacterial growth
Lag, log/exponential, stationary, death phases
324
Fitness def
Individual's level of reproductive success
325
How are peptide hormones directed to their intended location?
Smaller units are transported to the Golgi body and modified/activated and directed to location of effect
-Released by exocytosis into bloodstream
326
Where do tropic hormones originate?
In brain/anterior pituitary
327
Mendel's Second law of segregation
Law of independent assortment
| Inheritance of one gene does not affect inheritance of another gene
328
Cell wall + cell membrane = ?
Envelope
329
Reticular connective Tissue
Stroma of organs
- Filters blood cells in spleen & microbes in lymph nodes
- Found in stroma of liver, spleen, lymph nodes
330
How do kidneys contribute to the bicarbonate buffer system
Can selecitvely inc or dec secretion of H+ ions or bicarbonate
- If blood pH too low, kidneys excrete more H+ ions and increase reasborption of bicarbonate -> higher pH
- If blood pH too high vice cersa
331
Reabsoprtion kidney definition
Some compounds filtered or secreted may be taken up for use
332
What connects the embryo to the placenta?
Umbilical cord
333
INsulin function
Antagonistic to glucagon and secreted when blood gluc levels are high
- INduces muscle and liver cells to take up gluc and store as glyocgen for later use
- Stimulates fat and protein synthesis
334
FSH and LH roles in males
FSH: stimulates ser toil cells and triggers sperm maturation
LH: induces interstitial cells to produce testosterone
335
Fat ufunction of thermoregulation
Adipose tissue -> white fat -> insulation
| Brown fat: produces a lot of heat energy in in fants
336
WHat structures are found on microtubules?
Cilia: project from cell and involved in movement of material along its surface
Flagella: involved in movement of cell itself
-Centrioles: create spindle fibers during mitosis
337
Adipose Connective Tissue
Energy reserve, supports and protects
- Reduces heat loss
- Located anywhere where areolar tissue is
- Subcutaneous, heart, kidneys, yellow bone marrow
338
What does nephron secrete into tubules?
Salts, acids, bases and urea
| -Quantity of substances secreted related to bod's needs at the time
339
What stimulates Parathyroid hormone secretion
Low blood Ca levels
340
Mutagens def
Substances that cause mutations
341
Peptide hormones are made of?
Made of amino acids and derived from larger precursors of polypeptides that have been cleaved posttranslationally
342
Renal pelvis location
Spans almost entire witdth of renal hilum
343
What hormone affects GHRH?
GH
344
What is the problem with Mendel's second law of segregation
linked genes
345
G1: Presynaptic Gap phase
Cells create organelles for energy/protein production and increase in size
- Replicate mitochondria, ribosomes, ER
- First restriction point
346
Centrosome definition
Contains chromatids
347
Criteria for gene pool stability/Hardy-weinberg equilibrium
1. Population very large -> no genetic drift
2. No mutations occur that affect gene pool
3. Mating between individuals in population is random
4. No migration of individuals in or out of population
5. Genes in population are equally successful at being produced
348
Alternative name for pituitary gland?
Hypophysis
349
How does the skin perform thermoregulation
Sweating, arrector pilli, arterioles near the skin constriction, shiver, fat insulation
350
Menopause
Ovaries become less esnstive to FSH and LH as women age
- Ovaries begin to atrophy
- Usually between 45-55
351
First trimester of pregnancy
```
Major organs start to develop
Heart begins to beat
Eyes, gonads, limbs, and liver start to form
5 weeks: embryo = 10 mm in length
8 weeks: embryo becomes fetus
```
352
Retroviruses enzymes for translation/replication
Carry reverse transcriptase that synthesizes DNA from single-stranded RNA
353
Divergent evolution
Independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages
-They share a common ancestor
-Homologous structures
Ex: seals and cats both in carnivora order but very diff
354
Filament (flagella)
Hollow helical structure made of flagellin
355
Endocrine signals
Involve secreted hormones that travel through the bloodstream to a directed tissue
356
Which types of cells commonly use transformation
Gram-negative rods
357
Lag phase of bacterial growth
Bacteria first adapts to new local environment
| -Growth but not rapid
358
Hematopoesis
Formation of blood cells
- Starts in red bone marrow
- ALl cells derived from heamtopoietic stem cell
359
What do parathyroids produce?
Paratyroid hormones
360
amino acid derivative hormones structure
Composed of less amount of aa's than other two
361
What term is given to mutations with a negative selective advantage
Deleterious mutations
362
Where does spermatogenesis occur
In the seminiferous tubules
363
Disruptive selection def
Two extreme phenotypes selected over the norm
- No animals have intermediate phenotype
- Facilitated by polymorphisms -> difference between members of the same population
364
Direct hormones definition
Secreted and act direcly on target tissue
365
Viroids
Small pathogens with very short circular single-stranded RNA that infect plants
- Can bind to large numbers of RNA sequences and silence genes in plant genome
- Prevents synthesis of necessary proteins
366
Chromosomal mutations inversion
When a segment of DNA is reversed within a chromosome
367
Shivering function
Contractions of skeletal muscles to produce heat
368
Aldosterone function
Inc BP by inc Na reabsorption in DCT and collecting duct
| -Also dec reabsoprtion of K and H+ ions in DCT and collecting duct
369
Kinetochores
Attachment points for fibers of the spindle apparatus
370
Filtration kidney definition
Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule
371
What is the bicrabonate buffer system equation
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-
372
Bacteriophages definition
Viruses that infect bacteria
373
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
-Secretes mucus that trap particles
-Cilia sweeps away particles
-Airways of upper respiratory tract
—Trachea
374
What is a spermatogonium?
A male diploid stem cell
375
Prions
Infectious proteins: non living things that cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins
- Usually via conversion from alpha-helice to beta-pleated sheet
- Reduces solubility and ability of cell to degrade it
- Cell aggregates form and interferes with cell function
376
Stratum lucidum
Only found in thick hairless skin
377
What type of feedback affects oxytocin level?
Positive feedback loop:
- Release promotes uterine contraction and oxytocin release
- More oxytocin release leads to stronger contractions
378
Steroid Hormones are derived from what compounds?
Derived from cholesterol
379
Virus composition
Genetic material, protein coat, and envelope with lipids
380
What are symptoms of diabetes in general
Hyperglycemia
- Overwhelms nephron ability to reabsorb gluc and leads to gluc in urine
- Leads to excess excretion of water and dramatic inc in urine volume
381
Ectoderm
Outermost layer
| =Integument, nervous system, adrenal medulla, inner ear, eye lens
382
Where does zygote travel after fertilization?
Has to travel to uterus for implantation
383
Tropic hormones
Require an intermediary to act
384
Brown vs white adipose
Brown: More blood vessels, more mitochondria, heat production, infants
White: More fat storage, adults
385
Vulva
General term for external female anatomy
386
Langerhans cells function
Special macrophages in stratum spinosum
| -Presents antigens ti T-cells and activates immune system
387
How permeable is skin to H20
Matinatins blood osmolarity with this impermeability to H20
| -Prevents water loss of H20 entering through skin
388
Steps of Mendel's Second law of segregation
- Small segments of DNA swapped between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I -> novel combos of alleles now present -> recombination
- Inc genetic diversity of gametes and offspring
389
Passage of urine through excretory system
Nephron -> renal pelvis -> urter -> bladder -> urethra
390
Where are norepi and epi secreted
Directly into bloodstream
391
Positive sense single stranded virus RNA
Genome directly translated to functional proteins by ribosomes of host cell
-Similar to mRNA
392
Sweating function
Cooling mechanism and controlled by autonomic NS
- Postganglionic sympathetic secretion of water from sweat glands
- Heat absorbed from body and evaporates
- Large quantitiy of blood borught to surface of blood which leads to evaporation of sweat
393
Where are the receptors for steroid hormones typically found?
Typically intracellular or intracnuclear
394
Telophase
Spindle apparatus disappears, nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes, chromosomes uncoil
395
Hypothyroidism definition
Deficiency of iodine or inflammation of thyroid
396
Skeletal vs Cardiac vs Smooth Muscle tissue
Skeletal: Motion, posture, heat production
Cardiac: pumps blood to all parts of body
Smooth: Motion
-Iris,blood vessels, stomach, airways, intestines, bladder
397
Follicular phase
- GnRH secretion inc. response to dec. concentration of estro/prog
- GnRH causes secretion inc of FSH/LSH -> develop several ovarian follicles
- Follicles produce estrogen that cause FSH, LH, GnRH levels to fall off
- Estrogen stimulates regrowth of endometrial lining
398
Two components of the testis
seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells of Leydig
399
What do determination and differentiation depend on?
Depends on cellular location and identity of surrounding cells
400
What happens if the celll does not meet the criteria of a checkpoint during the cell cycle?
Cell goes into arrest until DNA is repaired
401
Type I diabetes
Low or no insulin production
| -Result of autoimmune destruction of beta islet cells
402
Type II diabetes
Receptor-level resistance to effects of insulin
| -Partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors
403
What is the product of spermatogenesis
Four functional sperm for each spermatogonium
404
What hormones does Posterior pituitary release?
Oxytocin and ADH
405
Carrier definition
When someone carries a diseased allele but doesn’t exhibit disease
406
When is glucagon released
During times of fasting or when blood glucose is low
407
Intermediate filaments
Cell-cell adhesion of cytoskeletons
| -Anchor organelles
408
Secretion definition kidney
Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate in PCT and descending loop of henle
409
Steps of parturition
1. cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures
2. Strong uterine contractions result in birth of fetus
3. Placenta and umbilical cord expelled (afterbirth)
410
Filtrate composition
Similar to blood but no cells or proteins
| -Isotonic to blood
411
Viruses binding to receptors mechanism
Viruses must bind to specific receptors
- Once binding, virus and cell can do additional interactions
- Enveloped viruses fuse with plasma membrane
- Virion enters host cell
- Depending on virus, different, portions of virion inserted into host cells
412
Function of endocrine system
Has organs/glands that secrete hormones directly intobloodstream to distant tissues
413
What do excess and deficicient amounts of GH lead to
Excess: gigantism
Deficit: Dwarfism
414
What are calluses made out of
Excessive keratin due to repeated strain of an area of skin
415
Estrogen role in adults
Leads to thickening of endometrium each month in preparation of implantation of zygote
- Secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH
- Supplied by placenta in 1st trimester of pregnancy
416
What are follicles (female gonads)
Multilayered sacs containing, nourishing, protecting immature eggs/ova
417
Incomplete regeneration
newly formed tissue is not identical in structure/function to tissue host
418
Second trimester of pregnancy
Tremendous growth
- Fetus begin to move in amniotic fluid
- Embryo begins to look human
419
Where is sperm produced
Seminiferous tubules
420
Differentation stage of cell specialization
Changing structure, function and biochem of celll becoming its determined cell type
421
Connective Tissue + composition
Most abundant tissue in body
-Basic components: cells & exc. matrix
FLAMMP: Fibroblast, Leukocytes, Adipocytes, Macrophage, Mast Cell, Plasma Cell
Fibroblast: Secrete fibers and matrix material
Macrophage: Digests foreign material
Plasma Cell: Produces antibodies -> inflammatory response
Mast Cell: Produces histamine -> inflammatory response
Adipocytes: Fat cells -> store energy in form of of fat
Leukocytes: WBCs -> immune/allergic response
422
What type of disease is color blindness
X-linked recessive
423
How does aldosterone affect kidney function
DCT: promotes Na+ reabsorption
Collecting: Inc reabsorption of water
-Greater water retention/more concentrated urine
424
Analagous structures associated with which type of evolution
Convergent evolution\
| -SImilar features but not derived from common ancestor
425
Metaphase I
Held by one intead of two spindle fibers
426
Allantois
Early fluid exchange between embryo and yolk sac
427
Types of WBC and functions
```
Neutrophil: acute bacterial
Eosinophil: Parasitic
Basophil: Allergic reactions
Lymphocyte: Viral -> T-cells/B-cells
Monocyte: Viral Chronic
```
428
Homologous structures are associated with which type of evolution
Divergent
- Indicate species deriving from same ancestor
- Do not need to have same function as ancestor
429
Flow of blood through valves from body
Blood from body enters through superior/inferior vena cavae
Right Atrium -> Right ventricle through Tricuspid valve
Right Ventricle -> Lungs through pulmonary valves that connect to pulmonary arteries
Lungs to pulmonary veins to L Atrium
L atrium to L ventricle through mitral/bicuspid valve
L ventricle to aorta via aortic valve -> pumped to rest of body
430
What stages of cell cycle are interphase?
G1, S, G2
431
What are heterozygous females of x-linked traits called
Carriers
432
Why does the blastula need to burrow into the endometrium
Creates interface for maternal blood supply
433
Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine
- Crossing over: between homologus chromosomes
- Leads to genetic recombination and inc variety of genetic combinations
434
Where do sperm travel during ejaculation?
Travels through vas deferens and enter ejaculatory duct at posterior edge of prostate gland
-Two ejaculatory ducts fuse to form urethra
435
How do peptide hormones travel through the bloodstream?
They are water-soluble so travel quickly through the bloodstream without needing carrier proteins
436
Obligate anaerobes
Cannot survive in oxygen-containing enviornment
437
What is the main protein associated with control of checkpoints
p53
| -Common mutation target for cancer -> unchecked cell division
438
Morphogens
Can cause neighboring cells to follow certain developmental pathway
439
Rough ER vs SMooth ER
Rough: studded with ribosomes
-Translation of proteins
Smooth: no ribosomes
-Lipid synthesis and detox of drugs/poisons
440
Cervix
Lower end of uterus
- Connects to vaginal canal
- Where sperm are deposited
441
Lysogenic cycle
Virus does not lyse bacterium but integrates into host genome as provirus/prophage
- Virus replicated as bacterium reproduces as part of genome
- Infection with one strain of phase makes bacterium less susceptible to infection
442
Tenets of natural selection theory
1. Organisms produce offpsring but few survive to reproductive maturity
2. Chance variations within individuals can be heritable
3. Individuals with greater preponderance for favorable mutations are more likely to survie to reproductive age
- Leads to higher freq of these traits in future generations
443
Effects of melatonin
Sleepiness sensation
444
Prokaryotic DNA characteristics
Located in nucleoid region
- Carried on single circular chromosomes
- Can also be carried on plasmids
445
Chromosomal mutations duplication
Segment of DNA copied multiople times in a genome
446
Where does anything not reabsorbed by collecting duct go?
It collcets in renal pelvis -> flows through ureter to bladder
-Stored in bladder until excreted via urination
447
Lysosomes
Membrane-bound structures with hydrolytic enzymes
448
S: Synthesis Phase
Cells replicate genetic material and have exactly identical copies
-Two identical chromatids bound together by centromere
449
What hormone induces FSH and LH levels?
GnRH
450
Function of melanin
Protects skin from UV radiation
- Levels of melanin results from activity levells of melanocytes
- Skin color produced by varying levels of melanin
451
Flagella function
Long, whip-like structures used for propulsion
| -Can be used to move toward or away from food/toxins
452
Menstrual cycle
Rising and falling of estrogen/progesterone in female reproductive years
453
What situation induces ADH release
Low blood volume
| -Want greater retention of H20
454
Gonads of males
Testes
455
Arteroiles constriction function for thermoregulation
Blood near skin is limited by this constriction
456
Path from spermatogonium to spermatozoa?
Spermatogonium replicated: diploid primary spermatocytes
2. After first meiosis, haploid secondary spermatic
3. After second meiosis, haploid spermatids
4. Spermatids undergo maturation and become mature spermatozoa
457
Benefits of conjugation
Allows for rapid acquisition of abx resitance or virulence factors throughout the colony
458
What is adaptive radiation
Rapid rise of number of diff species from a common ancestor
| -Alllows for various species to occupy diff niches
459
Punnet square ratios for mendel when crossing homozygous dominant and recessive parents
F1 genotypic ratio: 100% Pp heterozygous
-Phenotypic: 100% purple
F2 genotypic ratio: 25% PP, 50% Pp, 25% pp
-Phenotypic: 3 purple 1 white
460
Expressivity def
Varying phenotypes depite identical genotypes
| -Constant or variable
461
Metaphase
Kinetochore fibers align chromosomes at metaphase plate
462
Retrovirus structure
Enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses with virions of two identical RNA molecules
463
Specification stage of cell specialization
Cell reversibly designated as specific cell type
464
Connective vs Epithelial Tissue
Connective: More extracellular matrix
- Lots of blood vessels
- Underlying surface layers
Epithelial: More cells
- No blood vessels
- Form surface layers
465
Function of ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
Regulates salt and H20 balance
- Promotes excretion of Na+ and inc in urine volume
- Antagonistic to aldosterone
466
Interkinesis
Ocassional short rest period between meiosis I and II
467
Monozygotic twins fertilization process
When zygote splits into two
468
Apoptosis steps
Cells divide into self-containted protrusions called apoptotic blebs
-Can be further divided into apoptotic bodies and digested by other cells
469
Gram positive cell wall characteristics
Thick layer of peptidoglycan
- Cell wall contains lipotechoic acid
- Purple stain
470
Why aren't there cells or proteins in filtrate
The glomerular pores are too small for these molecules to fit so they remain in the blood
471
Type II diabetes treatment
Req insulin only when body can't control gluc levels
472
Corona radiata
Outside of zona pellucida and layer of cells adhered to oocyte during ovulation
473
Transduction (prokaryotic)
Requires a vector: virus that carries genetic material from one cell to another
- Performed by bacteriophages
- Bacteriophage infects host genome and incorporates a segment of its DNA
- When it infects another bacterium, can release this DNA into new host cell
474
Difference between meiosis one and two
Reductional division: Meiosis I reults in haploid daughter cells from a diploid parent cell
vs equational division: Meiosis II results in haploid daughter cells from haploid parent cells
-No change in ploidy
475
What stimulates prolactin secretion?
Estrogen and progesterone
476
What type of system typically regulates endorcine system
Negative feedback: hormone later in pathway inhibits hormones earlier in pathway
477
Transformation
Integration of foreign genetic material into host genome
| -After lysing, contents spilled into vicinity of a bacterium capable of transformatino
478
Transposons
Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from genome
-Disrupts affected gene
479
Absorption GI System def
Involves tranposrt of products of digestion from digestive tract into circulatory system to distribute into tissue and cells
480
Path of food in and out of body
Oral cavity -> phaynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
481
Enteric nervous system
Neurons that govern function of GI system
- Do not need to send messages to brain to do stuff
- Triger peristalsis
482
Peristalsis def
Rhythmic contractions of gut tube that moves materials through the system
483
What types of digestion does the oral cavity do?
Both mechanical and chemical digestion of food
484
What type of digestion is chewing
Mastication -> mechanical
485
Function of chewing/mastication
Inc. surface area-to-volme ratio of food
- Creates more surface area for enzymatic digestion
- Allows food to enter esophagus
486
Chemical digestion of oral cavity
Saliva produced by three pairs of salivary glands
| -Salivary amylase, lipas
487
functions of sailvary amylase and lipase
Lipase: hydrolyzes lipids
Amylase: hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars
488
Sections of the pharynx
Nasopharynx: behind nasal cavity
oropharynx: at back of mouth
Laryngopharynx: above the vocal cor
489
Pharynx function
Connects mouth to larynx
490
Epiglottis
Prevents food from entering larynx during swallowing
491
Esophagus function
Connect pharynx to stomach
492
Is the esophagus under voluntary control
Only the top third, the rest is under involuntary control
493
rugae def
Folds in the stomach
494
What do mucous cells produce
bicarbonate
495
What do chief cells produce
Pepsinogen
496
What is pepsinogen and what is proudced by
inactive form of pepsin
| -Produced by chief cells
497
What do G cells produce
Gastrin
498
Function of gastrin
Released from stomach in response to food
- Causes parietal cells to secrete HCl and chief cells to release pepsinogen
- Inc gastric emptying and send chyme to the duodenum
499
Function of HCl
Cleaves pepsinogen into its active form pepsin
500
What do parietal cells produce
HCl
| -Also intrinsic factor: leads to absorption of vitamin B12
501
Why is secretin released
because of the acidity of the stomach when food/chyme enters into the small intestine
502
What is the role of bicarbonate in the GI system
It neutralizes the chyme in the duodenum
503
Role of secretin
Inhibit's gastric effects
| -Slows gastric emptying
504
Cholecystokinin CCK functions
Causes:
- Release of pancreatic enzymes -> lipase
- Cause gall bladder to contract -> release bile
- Dec stomach motility
- Inhibits somatostatin -> promotes satiety
505
What releases CCK
Small intestine
506
What causes CCK to be released
Presence of fat
507
Exocrine functions of pancreas
Acinar cells produce pancreatic juices
| -Use for digestion
508
Function of pancreatic amylase and lipase
Amylase: Breaks down large polysaccharides into small dissacharides
Lipase: Breaks down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol
509
Enteropeptidase function
Master switch
- Converts trypsinogen to trypson
- Activates other zymogens and activates carboxypepidases
510
Where is the liver located
RUQ of abdomen
511
What are the bile ducts
Contains bile and connects liver with gallbladder with small intestine
512
Where does liver receive blood from
Hepatic portal vein
513
Where does blood in the liver drain to
Inferior vena cava
514
Function of liver
```
Produce glucose via
glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis
Sugar converted to glycogen
Fats stored as triacylglycerols
Detoxifies ammonia into urea
Detoxifies alcohol and meds
Produces bile
Creates bilirubin which breaks
down Hb
Synthesizes albumin
Synthesizes clotting factors
```
515
what is bile made of
Bilirubin -> byproduce of hemoglobin breakdown
| -Bile salts and cholesterol
516
When does jaundice occur
Yellowing of skin caused by liver inability to process/excrete bilirubin
517
What is albumin
Maintains plasma oncotic pressure and carrier for drugs/hormones
518
Where is the gallbladder
Under liver
519
Function of gallbladder
Stores/concentrates bile
520
When is bile released
CCK is present
| -Site of cholesterol/bilirubin stone formation
521
Jejunum and ileum function
Involved absorption of nutrients
| -Contain villi
522
Function of villi/microvilli
increase surface area for absorption
523
Components of villi
Capillary bed for water soluble nutrient absorption and a lacteal which takes up fats and transports them into lymphatic system
524
Pathway of fat soluble vitamin absorption
Fat soluble vitamins dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter lymphatic circulation
525
Pathway of water soluble vitamin absorption
Taken up with water/aa's/carbs across endothelial cells and directly into plasma
526
Function of cecum
Accepts fluid from small intestine and attaches to appendix
- Reabsorbs water
- Concentrates remaining material to form feces
527
Function of anus
Opening through which wasters are eliminated
528
Internal vs external anal sphincter
Inner is involuntary, outer is voluntary
529
Role of bacteria in GI system
Produce vitamins
- Outcompete foreign bacteria
- In return,a re fed steady source of food
530
Does ADH/aldosterone promote thirst?
yes
531
Which hormones promote hunger
Glucagon and ghrelin
532
Which hormones promote satiety
Leptin and CCK
533
Red fibers def
slow-twitch fibers
- High myoglobin and primaryily do aerobic energy
- COntain lots of mitochondria
534
White fibers def
Fast-twitch fibers
- Much less myoglobin
- Appear lighter because less myoglobin
535
Why do red twitch fibers look red
Because when iron binds to myoglobin, the heme group is red
| -Red twitch fibers have a lot of Myoglobin
536
Tonus def
Constant state of low level contraction of muscles
537
How are cardiac muscles connected
Via intercalated discs containing a lot of gap junctions
538
Function of gap junctions
Allow for rapid/coordinated depolarization of muscle cells and efficient contractions
539
Pathway of electrical conduction in heart
Depolarization spread from Sinoatrial node to atrioventricular node to Bundle of His to Purkinje Fibers
540
M-line
Center of sarcomere through middle of myosins
541
I-Band
exclusively thin filaments
542
H-zone
Only thick filaments
543
A-Band
Thick everywhere but some overlap with thin filaments
544
Which areas of sarcomere don't shorten during contraction
A-band
545
myofibrils def
Mutliple sarcomeres attached end to end
546
What surrounds the myofirbils
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
547
Function of sarcolasmic reticulum
High concentration of Ca2+ ions
548
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane of a myocyte
| -
549
sarcomere
Can propagate action potential to all sarcomeres within a myofibril via T-tubules
550
What is a myocyte composed of
Many myofibrils arranged in parallel
551
Composition of muscles
Myocytes in parallel
552
How does the nervous system communicate with muscles
Via motor/efferent neurons
553
What happens when a signal reaches a nerve terminal
Acetylcholine is released into synapse
554
Motor unit composition
Nerve terminal and its myocytes
555
Nerve terminal def
Controls group of myocytes
556
Depolarization propagation steps in sarcomeres
Spreads down sarcolemma to T-tubiules
| -Reaches sarcoplasmic reticulum and Ca2+ released
557
Function of Ca2+ in depolarization of muscles
Binds to regulatory subunit in troponin
- Tropomyocin undergoes conformation change
- Myosin-binding sites now exposed on actin
558
Sliding filament model steps
1. ATP hydrolysed to ADP+Pi
2. Ca2+ binds to troponin, myosin binds to actin
3. Powerstroke occurs, sarcomere contracts,
- ADP + Pi dissociate from myosin
4. New ATP binds to Myosin
- myosin detaches from actin
5. Cycle repeats
559
How is acetylcholine broken down
In synapse by acetylcholinesterase
| -Terminates signal at neuromuscular junction
560
What happens when acetylcholine is broken down
Sarcolemma repolarizes
- Ca2+ stops being released
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum takes Ca2+ back up from sarcoplasm
- No Ca2+ -> myosin-binding sites once again covered by tropomyosin
561
What dictates the strength of a response for muscles
The number of motor units that reach the threshold volume of an action potential
