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PHRM 825 > PHRM 825: Macronutrition > Flashcards

PHRM 825: Macronutrition Flashcards

1
Q

Carbohydrates contain ___ kcal/g

A

4

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2
Q

Carbohydrates are used to generate what?

A

Metabolic intermediates

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3
Q

Excess carbohydrates are converted to what?

A

Glycogen and triacylglycerol

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4
Q

Glycogen is found in the ___ and is used for

A

liver and muscles; energy storage

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5
Q

Triacylglycerol is also know as ___ and is used for

A

Fat; energy storage

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6
Q

Simple carbohydrates include

A
  • Sugars

- Fruits, vegetables, and milk

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7
Q

Examples of simple carbohydrates are

A

Monosaccharides and disaccharides

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8
Q

Monosaccharides are compose of ____ sugar molecules

A

single

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9
Q

Examples of monosaccharides include

A

Glucose, fructose, and galactose

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10
Q

Disaccharides are composed of ____ sugar molecules

A

two

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11
Q

Examples of disaccharides include

A

Sucrose, lactose, maltose

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12
Q

Complex carbohydrates include what 3 things?

A

polysaccharides, starch, glycogen

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13
Q

A polysaccharide is composed of what?

A

Many monosaccharides linked together in chains

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14
Q

Examples of polysaccharides

A
  • Glycogen in animals

- Starch and fiber in plants

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15
Q

Glucose is also known as what?

A

Dextrose

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16
Q

What is the most important carbohydrate fuel for the body?

A

Glucose

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17
Q

Glucose is frequently referred to as what?

A

Blood sugar

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18
Q

This molecule rarely occurs as a monosaccharide in food - it occurs as part of a disaccharide or starch

A

Glucose

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19
Q

What molecule is found in fruits and vegetables and makes up more than half the sugar in honey?

A

Fructose

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20
Q

What sugar molecule does not cause a rise in blood glucose?

A

Fructose

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21
Q

Fructose causes a rise in what blood level?

A

Blood lipids

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22
Q

The increase in the use of high-fructose corn syrup is suggested to be related to what?

A

Increased incidence of diabetes and obesity

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23
Q

What disaccharide makes up common table sugar?

A

Sucrose

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24
Q

Where is sucrose found?

A

sugar cane, sugar bets, honey, and maple syrup

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25
Q

What 2 molecules make up sucrose?

A

Glucose + Fructose

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26
Q

What disaccharide is found in milk?

A

Lactose

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27
Q

What 2 molecules make up lactose?

A

Glucose + Galactose

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28
Q

What disaccharide is made when starch is broken down?

A

Maltose

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29
Q

What 2 molecules make up maltose?

A

Glucose + Glucose

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30
Q

What complex carbohydrate is a plant polysaccharide?

A

Starch

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31
Q

Amylose definition

A

Starch with linear chains of glucose molecules and alpha-1,4-glucosidic bonds

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32
Q

Amylopectin

A

Starch with branched chains of glucose molecules with very few alpha-1,6-glucosidic bonds in addition to alpha-1,4-glucosidic bonds

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33
Q

What process does alpha-amylase play a role in?

A

Digestion of carbohydrates

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34
Q

How does alpha-amylase help with digestion of carbohydrates?

A

Hydrolyzes starch and glycogen to maltose and maltotriose

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35
Q

Where is alpha-amylase found in the body?

A

Saliva and pancreatic juice

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36
Q

3 enzymes on the luminal surface of small intestine

A

Maltase, sucrase, lactase

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37
Q

What does maltase do?

A

Breaks maltose and maltotriose down to glucose

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38
Q

What does sucrase do?

A

Breaks sucrose down to glucose and fructose

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39
Q

What does lactase do?

A

Breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose

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40
Q

What causes lactose intolerance?

A

Lack of production of lactase

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41
Q

Only what can be absorbed in the body?

A

Monosaccharides

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42
Q

Indigestible carbohydrates are converted to monosaccharides by what?

A

Bacterial enzymes

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43
Q

Indigestible carbohydrates are metabolized ____ by bacteria

A

anaerobically

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44
Q

Anaerobic metabolism of indigestible carbohydrates result in what products?

A

Short chain fatty acids, lactate, H2, CH4, and CO2

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45
Q

When indigestible carbohydrates are metabolized by bacteria, it can cause a person to have ___ and ___

A

Flatulence and abdominal discomfort

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46
Q

What is raffinose?

A

An oligosaccharide in leguminous seeds (beans and peas) that cannot be hydrolyzed by human enzymes

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47
Q

What does the glycemic index measure?

A

How quickly individual foods will raise blood glucose level

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48
Q

How is glycemic index defined?

A

The ratio of the area of the blood glucose response curve to that of glucose

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49
Q

What is the preferred energy source for the brain?

A

Glucose

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50
Q

What is the glucose transporter in the brain and is it insulin dependent?

A

GLUT3; No

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51
Q

What is the glucose transporter in the muscle and adipose tissue and is it insulin dependent?

A

GLUT 4; Yes

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52
Q

What is the glucose transporter in the liver and is it insulin dependent?

A

GLUT 2; Yes

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53
Q

What is the end product of glucose metabolism in RBCs

A

Lactate

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54
Q

What organelle do red blood cells not have?

A

Mitochondria

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55
Q

What are examples of dietary fibers

A

Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin

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56
Q

Where are cellulose and hemicellulose found?

A

Unrefined cereals, bran, whole wheat

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57
Q

Characteristics of cellulose and hemicellulose

A
  • Insoluble

- Increase stool bulk and decrease intestinal transit time

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58
Q

Where is lignin found?

A

Woody parts of vegetables

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59
Q

Characteristics of lignin

A
  • Insoluble

- Binds cholesterol and carcinogens

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60
Q

Where is pectin found?

A

Fruits

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61
Q

Characteristics of pectin

A
  • Soluble

- Decreases rate of sugar uptake and decreases serum cholesterol

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62
Q

Lipids have ___ kcal/g

A

9

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63
Q

What macromolecule provides satiety and adds flavor and aroma to diet?

A

Lipids

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64
Q

Lipids act as a carrier for what kinds of vitamins?

A

Fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)

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65
Q

Triacylglycerol makes up ____ of the dietary fat

A

> 90%

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66
Q

What composes triacylglycerol?

A

Glycerol + 3 FA

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67
Q

Phospholipids, cholesterol, cholesterol esters, fatty acids are ____ of the dietary fat

A

<10%

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68
Q

2 types of fatty acids

A

Saturated and unsaturated

69
Q

Saturated fatty acids have a ____ melting temperature than unsaturated fatty acids

A

Higher

70
Q

Saturated fatty acids are ___ at room temperature

A

Solid

71
Q

What are the 2 most common saturated fatty acids found in food

A

Palmitic acid (C16) and Stearic acid (C18)

72
Q

Which type of fatty acid is associated with many health risks such as heart disease and stroke?

A

Saturated fatty acids

73
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids have a ____ melting temperature than saturated fatty acids

A

Lower

74
Q

What are the 2 most common unsaturated fatty acids found in food?

A

Oleic acid (18:1) and linoleic acid (18:2)

75
Q

What are the 2 essential fatty acids?

A

Omega-3 and Omega-6

76
Q

Omega 3 is found in what kinds of oils?

A

Vegetable and fish

77
Q

Omega 6 is found in what oils?

A

Corn and meat and fish

78
Q

Essential fatty acids are used to synthesize ___ in the body

A

Eicosanoids

79
Q

Essential fatty acid deficiency is ___

A

Rare

80
Q

Essential fatty acids may need to be added to what?

A

Artificial infant formula

81
Q

The ratio of w-3 to w-6 in the diet is important in regulation of what processes?

A

Blood pressure, blood clotting, immune functions

82
Q

We want to w-3 to w-6 ratio to be ____

A

High

83
Q

Most unsaturated fatty acids found in nature have a ____ configuration

A

cis

84
Q

What process is used to convert unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids while producing trans fatty acids as byproducts

A

hydrogenation

85
Q

Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are a primary ingredient in what?

A

Margin and shortening

86
Q

A trans fatty acid has a ____ melting point than the same fatty acid in the cis configuration

A

higher

87
Q

Trans fats raise ____ levels and increase the risk of ____

A

Blood cholesterol; heart disease

88
Q

Fat needs to be ___ in order to be digested

A

Solubilized

89
Q

How is fat solubilized?

A
  • Dispersion of lipid phase into small droplets

- Solubilization by bile acids

90
Q

What enzymes hydrolyze triacylglycerol to fatty acids and monoacylglycerol?

A

Gastric and pancreatic lipases

91
Q

Fatty acids produced via hydrolization of triacylglycerol via gastric and pancreatic lipases act as what?

A

Surfactants

92
Q

What does esterase do in the digestion of lipids?

A

Hydrolyzes monoacylglycerol and cholesterol ester

93
Q

What delivers lipids to peripheral tissues?

A

Chylomicrons

94
Q

Muscle uses fat as what?

A

Energy source

95
Q

Excess fat is stored where?

A

Adipose tissue

96
Q

What can NOT sue fat as an energy source?

A

Brain

97
Q

When the body is starved, the liver converts fatty acids to what?

A

Ketone bodies

98
Q

Where are ketone bodies utilized as an energy source?

A

Brain and muscle

99
Q

Role of dietary proteins

A
  • Essential structural component

- Enzymes, hormones, plasma proteins, antibodies

100
Q

Excess protein is a source of ___

A

energy

101
Q

If the excess protein is a glucogenic amino acid, it is converted to ____ and then ____

A

Glucose; triacylglycerol

102
Q

If the excess protein is a ketogenic amino acids, it is converted to _____ and then ____

A

Keto acids and fatty acids; triacylglycerol

103
Q

Protein makes up what percentage of the human body weight?

A

~20%

104
Q

Essential amino acids either _____ or ____

A

Cannot be synthesized by the body or cannot be synthesized in large enough amount

105
Q

If we don’t consume enough essential amino acids in the diet, new proteins cannot be made without what?

A

Breaking down other body proteins

106
Q

Some amino acids are conditionally essential. Give an example.

A

If phenylalanine is not enough, tyrosine cannot be made enough in the body

107
Q

What is the pH of gastric juice?

A

<2

108
Q

During gastric digestion of proteins, the low pH does what?

A

Denatures the proteins

109
Q

Pepsins are involved in gastric digestion and are ___ and ___ at acidic pH

A

Stable and active

110
Q

Example of pepsin

A

Aspartic protease

111
Q

Intestinal digestion occurs with the help of ____ located at ____

A

peptidases; luminal surface

112
Q

What is the brush border?

A

Luminal surface of epithelial cells in the intestines

113
Q

Brush border is rich in what?

A

Peptidases

114
Q

Intestinal digestion produces what?

A

Free amino acids and di- and tripeptides

115
Q

Intestinal digestion can occur with the help of ______

A

intracellular peptidases

116
Q

Intestinal digestion via intracellular peptidases results in ____ being released into the blood

A

Free amino acids

117
Q

Absorbed amino acids are delivered to the liver via ___

A

The portal vein

118
Q

Amino-acid metabolizing enzymes in the liver have high ____ values

A

Km

119
Q

Most amino acids that go into the liver ___

A

end up passing through

120
Q

tRNA-charging enzymes have low ___ values for amino acids

A

Km

121
Q

Amino acids that escape the liver are used for ___ or ___

A

Protein synthesis or energy in other tissues

122
Q

Celiac disease is caused by what?

A

Gluten intolerance resulting in inflammation and damage of the small intestine

123
Q

Celiac disease is what kind of disorder?

A

Autoimmune

124
Q

Gluten is a major ___ found in ____

A

Protein; wheat, rye, and barley

125
Q

Protein has ___ kcal/g

A

4

126
Q

Alcohol has ___ kcal/g

A

7

127
Q

Excess energy in humans is stores as

A

fat in adipose tissue

128
Q

Glycogen in the liver is used to

A

Maintain blood glucose levels

129
Q

Glycogen in muscle is used for

A

exercise

130
Q

___ is NOT a preferred energy reserve

A

Protein

131
Q

Why is protein not a preferred energy reserve?

A

Not all proteins in our body can be used as energy

132
Q

When does the well-fed state occur?

A

Right after a meal

133
Q

What occurs during the well-fed state?

A
  • Insulin release
  • Glycolysis
  • Glycogen synthesis
  • Catabolism of amino acids
  • Fatty acid synthesis
134
Q

What does NOT happen during the well-fed state?

A

Gluconeogenesis

135
Q

When does the early fasting state occur?

A

Early morning (a couple hours after meal)

136
Q

What occurs during the early fasting state?

A
  • Glucagon release
  • Glycogen breakdown by liver
  • Gluconeogenesis by liver (Cori cycle, alanine cycle)
137
Q

What does NOT happen during the early fasting state?

A

Catabolism of amino acids (we want to reserve amino acids for protein synthesis)

138
Q

During the cori cycle the liver converts ___ to ___

A

Lactate to glucose

139
Q

Cori cycle is also known as the ___ cycle

A

Glucose-lactate

140
Q

During the cori cycle, Glucose generated by gluconeogenesis in the liver is used for ___ in ____

A

Glycolysis; a peripheral tissue

141
Q

During the cori cycle, NADH generated by glycolysis is used to ___

A

Reduce pyruvate to lactate

142
Q

The cori cycle is important when ___ is not enough

A

Oxygen supply

143
Q

What cells rely on the cori cycle and why?

A

Red blood cells because they do not have a mitochondria

144
Q

The alanine cycle releases what?

A

Nitrogen

145
Q

The alanine cycle is also known as what?

A

Glucose-alanine cycle

146
Q

During the alanine cycle, glucose generated by gluconeogenesis in the liver is used for ___ in ____

A

glycolysis; a peripheral tissue

147
Q

In the alanine cycle, NADH generated by glycolysis is used to produce ____

A

ATP

148
Q

During the alanine cycle, amino nitrogen is transferred to the liver and disposed of as ___

A

urea

149
Q

When does the fasting state occur?

A

When the body is very hungry and it is in energy save mode

150
Q

What occurs during the fasting state?

A
  • Glucagon release
  • Gluconeogenesis
  • Protein is used as a major carbon and nitrogen source
  • Lipolysis in adipose tissue
  • Fatty acid oxidation
  • Ketogenesis
  • Reduced thyroid hormones
151
Q

During the fasting state, the basal energy requirement drops by ___%

A

25%

152
Q

Blood levels of ___ is carefully regulated

A

glucose

153
Q

If glucose is <1.5 mM, ___ will occur

A

Coma and death

154
Q

Hyperglycemia can cause

A

Dehydration, hyperglycemic coma, complications of diabetes

High glucose levels are toxic

155
Q

Brain uses more than ___% of the body’s glucose

A

20%

156
Q

The brain uses ___ g of glucose per day

A

100-120

157
Q

The brain uses ___% of the body’s total oxygen

A

15-20%

158
Q

The brain uses the membrane potential created by ___

A

Na/K ATPase

159
Q

How is energy stored in the brain?

A

The brain cannot store energy - it cannot use glycogen and it cannot store fat

160
Q

What does the brain use for energy when the body is starving?

A

Ketone bodies made from acetyl-CoA in the liver

161
Q

How is stored energy utilized during low level exertion?

A
  • Fatty acid oxidation

- Aeorbic

162
Q

How is stored energy utilized during moderate to high activity

A
  • Glycogen to glycolysis (carbohydrate loading)
  • Switch over to fatty acid oxidation
  • Aerobic
163
Q

How is stored energy utilized during maximum exertion

A
  • Phosphocreatine and glycogen
  • Anaerobic
  • Lactic acid production
  • Very little inter-organ cooperation
  • <1 min
164
Q

Protein-energy malnutrition is common is ___

A

Infants and young children in developing countries

165
Q

Protein-energy malnutrition results in a reduced ability to ___

A

Fight off infection

166
Q

Marasmus cause

A

Inadequate intake of both protein and energy

167
Q

Marasmus presentation

A
  • Thin, wasted appearance

- Small for his/her age

168
Q

Kwashiorkor cause

A

Inadequate intake of protein with adequate energy intake

169
Q

Kwashiorkor presentation

A
  • Occurs in children 1-3 years of age

- Deceptive plump appearance due to edema

PHRM 825 (36 decks)

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